Human Psychology Week 1 PDF

Human Psychology Week 1 Dr. Aamna Mukhtar IBA, University of the Punjab Misconceptions about psychology and psychologists Anybody who has studied psychology can read people’s personality Psychologists can predict fate or destiny Psychologists are doctors Psych...

Human Psychology Week 1 Dr. Aamna Mukhtar IBA, University of the Punjab Misconceptions about psychology and psychologists Anybody who has studied psychology can read people’s personality Psychologists can predict fate or destiny Psychologists are doctors Psychologists give medicines Why do we study psychology? Scientific inquiry begins with an attitude of eagerness to skeptically investigate competing ideas, with an open- minded approach. Putting ideas to the test helps us in fully understanding them. The curiosity that drives us to test ideas, and to expose their underlying assumptions, can be experienced in every day life as critical thinking. What is Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes of Human or Animal  Behavior is overt, manifest, obvious, and easy to study. The mental processes that help carryout these behaviors are covert, underlying, hidden, and not easy to study. Besides behavior, what causes these behaviors to occur and the mental processes involved in it is an important area of interest for a psychologist. Goals of Psychology To understand the nature and mechanisms of behavior and mental processes To develop an understanding of the relationship between behavior and mental processes To apply this understanding to real life situations and, on the basis of this understanding, predict for the future To employ the scientific approach for developing this understanding Psychology is a Science Scientific method is a systematic and organized series of steps that scientists adopt for exploring any phenomenon in order to obtain accurate and consistent results. These steps involve observation, description, control, and replication. Scope of Psychology Education/teaching Research Hospitals/clinics Recruiting/screening agencies Specialized professional settings e.g. armed forces, social welfare etc. Popular Areas of Psychology Clinical Psychology A branch of psychology concerned with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior. Industrial / Organizational Psychology A branch of psychology that studies the psychology in action at the workplace, including productivity, job satisfaction, and decision-making. Health Psychology The branch of psychology that explores the relationship of psychological factors and physical ailments or disease.  Consumer Psychology A branch of psychology that studies and explains our buying habits and effects of advertising a buying behavior. Environmental Psychology A branch of psychology, that focuses upon the relationship between people and their physical environment. Sport Psychology The branch of psychology, that studies the psychological variables that have an impact upon the sportspersons’ performance Forensic Psychology The branch of psychology that investigates legal issues and psychological variables involved in criminal behavior.  Human Psychology Human psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. It seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act both individually and in groups. Human psychology examines a wide range of mental processes, including perception, cognition, emotion, motivation, and personality, as well as the impact of social, cultural, and environmental factors on behavior. HISTORICAL ROOTS OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Man was always curious about human behavior, nature of consciousness, origin of “madness”, emotions and much more about other people’s nature. “Psychology has a long past, but only a short history.” (Hermann Ebbinghaus, 1908) Wilhelm Wundt set the foundations of modern psychology in 1879, by establishing the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Man sought explanations of human behavior  In 1590 Rudolf Goeckel used the term “psychology”. Two Greek words “ psyche” and “ logos” “science of mind” “science of consciousness” In the words of Wilhelm Wundt, “psychology has to investigate that which we call internal processes or experiences- our own sensations and feelings, our thoughts and volitions in contradistinction to the subject of external experience” “science of behavior” (Stimulus-response) Watson  Human Psychology Week 2 Dr. Aamna Mukhtar IBA, University of the Punjab  Recap Definition Historical roots of modern psychology Phases of psychology : “Soul” to “mind” to “conscious experience” to “behavior”  Schools of Thought A particular, distinct way of Observation Description Understanding Prediction of Psychological phenomena; in the present context, mental processes and behavior Earlier Schools of Thought Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt psychology Psychodynamic School Behaviorist / Behavioral School  Prevalent Approaches / Models / Perspectives Biological Approach Psychodynamic Approach Behaviorist / Behavioral Approach Humanistic Approach Cognitive Approach  Structuralism Structuralism is focused on studying the conscious experience by looking into its individual parts or elements. Wilhelm Wundt, in Germany, established the foundations of modern psychology in 1879. He wanted to study, experimentally, the conscious experience of individuals. He studies the “building blocks of the mind”, and is generally known as the founder of “scientific psychology”. The first well formed system of psychology that laid the foundations for the scientific and experimentally oriented study of mind and mental processes. They used introspection as their method of study. The procedure used for studying the “structure of mind” was called “Introspection”. Main Presumption According to Wundt, the subject matter of psychology is to be immediate experience, as contrasted to mediate experience. Immediate experience is about how you feel and perceive the event as it occurs, while mediate experience is about the external, objective facts and measurements related to that event. All human mental experience could be understood as the combination of simple events or elements. By analyzing the basic elements of sensations and other mental experiences, the underlying structure of the mind could be unveiled  Introspection The subjects gave detailed reports of what they experienced when they were exposed to a stimulus Wundt’s Lab attracted leading scientists and students from Europe and U.S.A. James Mckeen Cattell : Known for his work on individual differences and “Mental Tests”. Emil Kraeplin : Postulated a physical cause of mental illness. In 1883, he gave the first classification system of mental disorders Hugo Munsterberg : First to apply psychology to industry and law Edward B. Tichener : Known as the formal founder of Structuralism  Criticism It was Reductionist (It reduced all complex human experience to simple sensations) It was Elementalistic (The structuraralists sought to look at individual elements first, and then combine parts into a whole, rather than study the variety of behavior directly) It was Mentalistic (Structuralism studied only verbal reports of human conscious experience and awareness, ignoring the study of subjects who could not report their introspection)  Functionalism Founded by William James, also known as the founder of American Psychology. This school became prominent in the1900s. It emerged as a reaction to Structuralism. Emphasized “function” rather than “Structure” of human consciousness i.e., what the mind does. An approach that concentrated on what the mind does, in other words the functions of mental activity, and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments. The functionalist psychologists start with the fact that objects are perceived and “how” they are perceived. They asked “why” as well.  Longitudinal Research Observation, interviews, and testing of a person over a long period of time: made possible to observe and record the subject’s development and his reaction to different circumstance. William James He was the leading precursor of functionalist psychology. James was a Harvard University professor, primarily trained in physiology and medicine. Psychology and philosophy fascinated him, and he treated psychology as a natural science. In 1875 he offered his first course in psychology. In 1890 he published “Principles of Psychology”, a two-volume book, which became a leading psychology text in the U.S. James said: “We should study consciousness but should not reduce it into elements, content and structure”. Acts and functions of mental processes need to be focused upon, rather than contents of the mind. Consciousness was an ongoing stream, and was in continual interaction with the environment. Careful observation is important; Wundt’s rigorous laboratory methods are of little value. James believed that each individual has a uniqueness that could not be reduced to formulas or numbers.  John Dewey One of the key founders of “Functionalism”. Stimulus– Response phenomenon is not an automatic behavior, the goal of the person performing it has the main role in it; the stimulus and the response determine each other. It is the function, or the goal, of the whole action that elicits response. Dewey developed the field of ‘School Psychology’ and recommended ways for meeting student’s needs.  Children and adults are different; teaching/education should be in accordance with children’s developmental readiness.  Children are similar to adults in the sense that they perform better when they have some control over what they are to accomplish; the curriculum should be designed accordingly.  Gestalt Psychology This school developed as a reaction to structuralism in the early 1900s. In contrast to the structuralist approach of breaking down conscious experience into elements, or focusing upon the structure, the Gestalt school emphasized the significance of studying any phenomenon in its overall or “WHOLE” form. The word gestalt means “Configuration”. The main concept that the Gestaltists posed was that the “WHOLE” is more than the sum of its parts, and it is different from it too. The concept of Gestalt applies to everything, objects, ideas, thinking processes and human relationships.  Max Wertheimer The founder of Gestalt Psychology, born in Prague in 1880. Phi phenomenon when two lights are in close proximity to each other, flashing alternately they appear to be one light moving back and forth; therefore the whole was different from the separate parts; movement perceived whereas it never occurred. We perceive experiences in a way that calls for the simplest explanation, even though reality may be entirely different; this is Gestalt Law of Minimum Principle. We tend to organize our experience so that it is as simple as possible. Gestalt Laws of Organization Laws of Perceptual Organization Proximity: Close or nearer objects are perceived as coherent and related. Similarity: Tendency to perceive objects, patterns or stimuli as groups, which are similar in appearance__ parts of the visual field that are similar in color, lightness, texture, shape, or any other quality Good Continuation: Tendency to group the stimuli into smooth and continuous patterns or parts. Closure: It is the perceptual tendency to fill in the gaps and completing the contours; enables us to perceive the disconnected parts as the whole object. Figure and Ground: Our perceptual tendency to see objects with the foreground as well as the background___ the object is being recognized with respect to its background. e.g. black board and chalk.  Other Major Contributions Gestalt approach to ethics: Truth is truth when it is complete and corresponds fully to the facts of the situation. Zeigarnik’s Effect: Bluma Zeigarnik’s experiments; we remember interrupted tasks better. The tension caused by unfinished tasks helps us in remembering. Group Dynamics: Instead of focusing on people’s individual attributes we should see them as whole persons. Recap Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt psychology PERSPECTIVE/MODEL/APPROACH A distinct way to Describe Observe Understand Predict any given psychological phenomena. Biological /Medical Perspective Based on the assumption of Materialism i.e., all behavior has a physiological basis An understanding of biochemical processes will give an understanding of psychological and social phenomena Physical structures and hereditary processes determine behavior or behavior potential Physical/physiological interventions can alter mental processes and behavior Root cause of abnormalities and disorders lies in biology and requires medical intervention Hippocrates is a Greek physician/philosopher and is regarded as the “Father of Medicine” Theories in Biological Model Genetic Theory Diathesis-Stress Theory Predisposition i.e., diathesis (including genes) and stressful environment combine together to cause abnormal behavior Traits are influenced by genes and by environment Biochemical Theory Very small amounts of certain chemicals in the body can cause profound changes in behavior Neurotransmitters The synapse of the neuron releases special chemicals called “neurotransmitters” Neurotransmitters and Their Role Acetylcholine: Learning, Memory and Muscle control Dopamine: Motor activity, Coordination, Emotion and Memory Epinephrine: Emotion, Stress GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid): Anxiety, Arousal, Learning Serotonin: Sensory Processing, Sleep, Arousal Glutamate: Anxiety, Mood Endocrine Glands These glands form the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of ductless glands that secrete hormones (special chemicals) into the bloodstream”  Low secretions of the thyroid produce anxiety like symptoms such as irritability and tension  Low level of pituitary secretions produces depression like symptoms—Fatigue, apathy etc.  Abnormal secretions of hormones may cause major depression Pharmacological Treatment “Pharmacology is the science of the study of drugs to treat a wide range of less severe psychological disorders”. 1. Narcosis: The word “Narcosis” is derived from the Greek word meaning “be numb”. a. Prolonged Narcosis Person is made to sleeps for15-24 hours a day and is kept under constant observation Prolonged narcosis is difficult and dangerous to administer, because a number of physiological complications develop under prolonged sleep Seldom used today b. Narcoanalysis Drugs are given in amounts that produce a state of “grogginess” Pharmacological Treatment Chemotherapy It is the type of therapy that treats mental and behavioral disorders with drugs and chemicals Tranquilizers Drugs that produce soothing and calming effects Energizers They are used with the sufferers of depression who are not helped by sedatives Non-pharmacological Somatic Treatment In 1930’s, several therapies were developed which draw considerable attention Insulin-Shock Therapy Developed by Manfred Sakel to cure psychological disorders by administrating insulin to produce a state of comma Comma is caused because of a reduction in blood sugar level Found to be Effective with schizophrenics, addicts etc., if used with psychotherapy. Now rarely used as a method of treatment Electro-Convulsive Therapy (ECT) A biochemical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of the anesthetized patient This controversial therapy is applied to severely depressed patients Psycho-Surgery It involves brain surgery which is used in the treatment of severe psychotic patients who have resisted all other forms of treatments Merits of Biological Approach Although psychological causes are significant, biological causes are worthy of examination and study too Research work is rapid, producing valuable new information Demerits of Biological Approach Explains human behavior in biological terms, treats with the help of biological methods, and ignores psychological factors Mental life is an inter play of both biological and non- biological (environmental) factors; biological has been emphasized at the cost of ignoring the non biological, or psychological  Human Psychology Week 3 Dr. Aamna Mukhtar IBA, University of the Punjab Recap Theories in Biological Model Genetic Theory Diathesis-Stress Theory Biochemical Theory Focus of Study Genes Neurotransmitters Endocrine Glands Therapeutic techniques Pharmacological Treatment Non-Pharmacological Treatment The Psychodynamic Approach The approach that concentrated on the unconscious forces that drive our behavior; belief that the inner forces over which individuals have little control to motivate a behavior. Founded by Sigmund Freud, the most influential figure in the history of psychology. The basis of motivation and behavior lies in inner forces; forces that are predetermined, and forces over which humans have little control, which the person is not aware of i.e., unconscious determinants of behavior. It was the first theory that to raise awareness that not all behaviors are rational. Roots of Human Action Foundations of Psychodynamic Approach Psychic Determinism All behavior is determined i.e., has a cause that lies in the mind/psyche Role of Consciousness A significant part of our behavior is generated by unconscious forces Continuity of Normal and Abnormal Behavior Normal and abnormal behavior are different only in terms of degree and not in kind Emphasis on Clinical Observation Clinical observation/ case studies were the main source of data Structure of Consciousness  Dreams reflect unconscious needs, desires, and impulses. Manifest content The obvious, apparent part: what a dream appears to be to the dreamer. Latent content The dream’s true meaning, which is usually disguised or distorted by dream work. Symbolism: The manifest content is in a symbolic form. Sources of Motivation Psychodynamic Model of Personality ID is the source of basic drives; operates under the ‘pleasure principle’ i.e., it wants immediate gratification of needs. The id has two means of satisfying bodily needs, reflex action and wish fulfillment. Ego Mediates the link of the self with the outside world, “Real World”. It operates under the ‘reality principle’. Super Ego opposes the id and represents the moral demands of the family and society. It is the ‘ moral self ’ or the ‘conscience’ of the person. Development of Personality: A Stage Approach Psychodynamic approach proposed a stage- theory of the development of personality: Anxiety An emotional state experienced as a result of felt threat to the self Anxiety arises when ego cannot cope too much of: i. Demands of the ID ii. Demands of the ego iii. External danger In order to protect itself against anxiety and threat, ego uses defense mechanism Defense Mechanisms i. Repression Blocking unpleasant/ unacceptable thoughts by pushing them into the unconscious e.g. forgetting events of the painful childhood. ii. Regression Reverting back to a stage that was satisfying e.g. a boss showing temper tantrums like a child; or acting like a baby. iii. Displacement Redirecting the expression of unwanted desires or impulses to a substitute rather than the actual target e.g. beating children when a wife cannot express anger toward husband. iv. Rationalization In order to justify one’s behavior, one develops a socially acceptable explanation or reasoning e.g. going for a second marriage saying that the first wife was quarrelsome. Defense Mechanisms v. Denial Refusing to acknowledge or accept anxiety provoking thoughts or impulses e.g. being a heavy smoker but saying ‘I am an occasional smoker’. vi. Projection Attributing unwanted thoughts and impulses to others e.g. a person takes bribe and blames the organization for paying him not enough salary. vii. Sublimation Converting unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings and actions e.g. disliking the in-laws but behaving in a very friendly manner, or becoming a stamp collector to overcome the impulse to steal. Psychotherapy: Psychoanalysis An intensive, long-term psychotherapeutic procedure. Requires long sessions over extended periods----- may be years. Involves a special relationship between the therapist and the patient. Target: To explore unconscious motivation, conflicts, desires. Goal: Establishing intra psychic harmony by developing awareness of the role of the id, reducing over compliance with super ego, and by strengthening the ego. Interventions used in Psychotherapy Free Association : Catharsis Analysis of Resistance Dream Analysis Analysis of Transference & Counter Transference Transference: The patient’s emotional response toward the therapist is often an indication of the patient’s relationship with a person who had been the center of the conflict. It may be negative or positive. Counter Transference: The therapists’ emotional reaction toward the patient is also important. He may also start having positive or negative feelings for the patient. Criticism against Freudian Psychodynamic Theory There is no scientific proof that many psychodynamic constructs, e.g. unconscious, exist. Psychic Determinism: Freudian approach is deterministic and leaves not much room for conscious, rational, decision making or personal will to act. It ignores the external variables and the environment. It emphasizes the early childhood experiences too much. Mostly criticized for its interpretation of the relationship between the genders. The therapy is too time consuming and therefore expensive. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH The psychological model that focuses on the overt, observable, behavior. Emerges from the rejection of psychology’s early emphasis on the inner working of the mind, suggesting instead that observable behavior should be the focus of the field. John B. Watson was the first person that advocated the behavioral approach. What do the Behaviorists Study? Behaviorists specifically study: Observable/ overt behavior Specific measurable responses How particular types of behaviors are controlled by particular types of environmental stimuli They are not interested in: Unconscious Inner motivation Biochemical processes These and all other states, which are not being observed with the naked eye or cannot be evaluated. Behaviorist Analysis Behaviorist Analysis is done for seeing and establishing the relationship between the stimulus and response/behavior. Three step approach The antecedent environmental conditions are analyzed. i.e., the conditions preceding the action/ response/ behavior, and that lay a ground for it. The behavioral response is studied: study of the action or behavior that is to be understood, described, predicted, and controlled. Observable consequences are explored: The impact resulting from the target behavior i.e. how it affects the environment or other people. Basic Terminology Stimulus: A physical energy source that has an effect on a sense organ, thus producing a response. Response: The action, behavior, or reaction triggered by a stimulus. Environment: External factors, variables, conditions, influences, or circumstance affecting one’s development or behavior. Variable: A behavior, factor, setting, or event that can change / vary in amount or kind. Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior that takes place as a result of practice and/ or experience. Classical Conditioning: The Theory Why are children scared of darkness? Why some children jump with joy at the sight of a bear and some start screaming in fright? It is a type of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus starts eliciting a response that was originally attached to a natural stimulus, because the neutral stimulus has been closely associated with the other stimulus. Applications of Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life Negative emotional responses fears, phobias-----fear of lizards, dark places, school phobia Positive emotional responses Feelings of relaxation, and happiness --- thinking of going on a holiday Advertising Associating model with the product Psychotherapy Systematic desensitization, aversive therapy Operant Conditioning Why do teachers give stars on children’s workbooks? Why do parents clap happily when their child utters the first words that nobody else can decipher? Why do manufacturers of products announce prize schemes for the consumers of their products? Operant Conditioning is a type of learning in which a voluntary response becomes stronger or weaker, depending on its positive or negative consequences The organism plays an active role and “Operates” on environment to produce the desired outcome Shaping Successive approximations of a required / desired response are reinforced until that response is fully learnt: In the beginning each and every success is reinforced with a reward, no matter how small the success. Once the desired response is learnt the reinforcer immediately follows it, every time it happens. Acquisition: Initially the response rate following reinforcement may be slow but at one stage it increases to the maximum. This is acquisition. Extinction: If reinforcement is withheld the response rate decreases and finally no response is shown. This is extinction. Reinforcement Reinforcement: Increasing the probability that preceding behavior will be repeated through a stimulus. Positive Reinforcer: A stimulus whose introduction brings about an increase in the preceding response. Negative Reinforcer: A stimulus whose removal reinforces and leads to a higher likelihood that the response bringing about this removal will be repeated. Punishment: An unpleasant or painful stimulus whose introduction following a certain behavior decreases likelihood that the behavior will occur again. Applications of Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life Child rearing Classroom management Teaching of skills Animal taming Advertising Psychological intervention and Psycho- therapy: behavior modification, assertiveness training, token economy THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH It is the approach that focused on: The idea that people are in control of their life. The person or the self and personal growth and development are to be emphasized. Basic Assumptions of the Humanistic Approach i. In order to understand behavior we must consider the subjective experience of the person. ii. Neither past experience nor current circumstances constrain the behavior of the person. Humanistic Approach Emphasizes Individual’s freedom in directing his future Capacity for personal growth Intrinsic worth Potential for self-fulfillment  Humanistic Vs Psychodynamic & behaviorist Approaches Humanistic approach emphasizes the person, the psychodynamic stresses unconscious determinants, and the behaviorists focus upon external determinants. Humanistic approach is more optimistic than the other two in the sense that it believes in the person’s ability and will. According to the humanistic thinkers, limiting ourselves to observable behavior and external stimuli alone is ignoring the thinking-feeling person, and that is dehumanizing. Free will: Humans possess the ability to make decisions about their life Rogers’ Approach Primarily a clinical theory, based on years of Rogers’ experience dealing with his clients. In its richness and maturity his theory matches that of Freud; a theory well thought-out and logical having broad application. The theory emphasizes on a single factor “force of life” which he calls the actualizing tendency i.e. built-in motivation present in every life form to develop its potentials to the fullest extent possible. Rogers had the person-centered approach since the ‘person’ was the main figure of importance. He believed that the most powerful human drive is the one to become “fully functioning” i.e. a person becomes all that he or she is capable of. To be fully functioning means experiencing: i. Optimal psychological adjustment ii. Optimal psychological maturity iii. Complete congruence (a feeling of integration when the self and the ideal self match; incongruence is a feeling of conflict or unease experienced in case of a mismatch between the two) iv. Complete openness to experience Defenses In case of an incongruity between one's the ideal and the real self-defenses develop. Rogers talks about only two defenses: Denial and Perceptual Distortion Denial: Blocking out the threatening situation altogether. Denial also includes what Freud called repression. Perceptual distortion: Reinterpreting the situation so that it appears less threatening, just like Freud's rationalization Abraham Maslow American psychologist, and leading exponent of humanistic approach. Gave comprehensive theory of motivation. Found the prevalent psychology to be too pessimistic and negatively oriented. Key Points of Maslow’s Theory Psychology and the psychologist should look at the positive side of the human beings. There must be more to living than just being battered by a hostile environment, or by depraved instincts----which may actually be leading to self-destruction. People’s needs are not low level and base. We have positive needs that may become neutral in the worst cases, but will not turn negative or base. Human behavior does respond to needs but we will be wrong in saying that all our needs are only physiological in nature Needs motivate human action; such needs are very few in number. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Basically a stage theory. The needs at one level have to be met in order for one to move on to higher order. The needs at the lowest/primary/base level are the physiological needs, whereas the highest order needs are the self-actualization needs. Categories of Needs Criticism against Maslow’s theory Can we actually, for all case, distribute and neatly order these needs? There is little empirical evidence to support Maslow’s way of ranking needs  Week 6,7 Human Psychology Psychological Theories and their applications at workplace Course: Psychology at Work – Workplace Dr. Aamna Mukhtar Psychology Course Code: BAHR2102 - BAHR2104 University of the Punjab, Lahore Specialization: Human Resource Management Department of Business Studies CONTENT: Psychological theories and their application at workplace ▫ Behavioural Theories  Classical Conditioning theory  Operant Conditioning theory  Observational learning theory ▫ Personality Theory  Five factor theory ▫ Motivational theories  Maslow’s Need hierarchy  Theory X and Theory Y  Job Characteristics Model ▫ Kurt Lewin’s Change Model ▫ Cognitive theory  Multiple Intelligence Theory Major Theories in Psychology Many researchers have conducted experiments on human behavior and developed theories on human behavior. Major theories include theories on learning, motivation, personality, humanism, cognition etc. We will discuss some of the major theories in psychology that are applicable in workplace. Classical Conditioning theory Classical conditioning is a behaviourist theory of learning. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process, in which two stimuli are linked to produce a new learned response. Pavlov was experimenting to measure the salivation of dog to different foods. During this experiment, Pavlov discovered that dogs started salivating not only to tasting the food, but also on seeing the empty food bowl, sound of footsteps of assistants who bring food. So, he was surprised to see the accidental learning of dog and decided to conduct an experiment on this. Classical Conditioning Experiment In this experiment, in the first step, meat powder (unconditioned stimulus) was given to dog. The dog responded with salivation every time meat powder was presented, which was a reflexive response. The dog’s salivation was Unconditioned response. In the second stage, Pavlov used a sound like ringing bell to which dogs did not salivate. So, Bell Sound was considered a Neutral Stimulus. In the third stage, Pavlov rang the bell immediately before giving meat powder and this was done repeatedly over and again which made the dog to salivate just on hearing the bell sound. So, the bell tone became a Conditioned Stimulus as dog started salivating on hearing the bell sound. Dog’s salivation on hearing bell sound is called Conditioned Response. Thus, Pavlov successfully linked two stimuli to create a learned response.  Basic Concepts in Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus: The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. Ex: presentation of meat piece to the dog Unconditioned Response: The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. Ex: salivation of dog on seeing the meat piece. Conditioned Stimulus: The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. EX: ringing of bell Conditioned Response: The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. Ex: salivation of dog on listening to the bell. Application of classical conditioning theory It is useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems. Also, it may help to understand certain strong emotional reactions of people to various experiences. Businesses use this theory extensively in the field of advertising and marketing, in which they link their product with something that customers consider attractive and important. Critical thinking Question Do you think classical conditioning theory can be applied to develop new behaviors at work place such as such as operating machine or solving a problem? Explain Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishments. In Operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (negative or positive) for that behavior. According to Psychologist B. F. Skinner, classical conditioning is limited to only some behaviors that are natural or reflexive and it doesn’t apply for new behaviors. Skinner’s theory focuses on how new behaviors are learnt. He believed that behavior is motivated by the consequences (effects / outcomes) of the behavior. Operant conditioning is based on “Law of effect” which states that behaviors that are followed by good satisfying consequences (effects, results) are more likely to be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.  Concepts in Operant Conditioning Theory Reinforcements and Punishments: Reinforcement means you are increasing a behavior and punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement: A favorable event or reward is presented after a behavior to strengthen it. Example: An employee exceeds their sales target and receives a bonus. The bonus encourages the employee to continue performing well. Negative reinforcement: An unfavorable condition is removed after a behavior to encourage its repetition. Example: A student submits assignments on time, and the teacher removes the need for extra homework. The removal of the extra homework reinforces timely submission.  Concepts in Operant Conditioning Theory Positive punishment: An unfavorable event is introduced following a behavior to reduce its occurrence. Example: A worker arrives late, and their manager assigns them extra tasks. The extra work discourages future lateness. Negative punishment: A favorable event or outcome is taken away to reduce the likelihood of a behavior. Example: A teenager violates curfew, so their car privileges are revoked. The removal of the car privileges discourages future curfew violations. Extinction: A behavior gradually diminishes when it no longer receives reinforcement. Example: A child throws tantrums for attention, but over time the parents stop responding. The absence of attention leads the child to stop throwing tantrums.  Concepts in Operant Conditioning Theory Shaping: In operant conditioning experiments, Skinner often used an approach called shaping. In shaping, behaviors are broken down into many small, achievable steps. The specific steps used in the process of shaping ▫ First, Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. ▫ Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. ▫ Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. ▫ Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. ▫ Finally, reinforce the desired behavior only. Organizations use this theory in training employees on new behaviors, strengthening good behaviors and performance by providing rewards such as incentives, promotion, a word of appreciation etc., Alternatively, organizations also use punishments such as salary cut, suspension, to correct the undesirable behavior of employees.  Albert Badura’s Observational Learning (Modeling) / Social learning theory Humans and other animals are capable of observational learning. Albert Bandura (Professor of Psychology, Sandford university) identified three kinds of models to train people on various skills and behaviors. They are live model, verbal model and symbolic model. A live model demonstrates a behavior in person. A verbal instructional model does not perform the behavior, but instead explains or describes the behavior. A symbolic model can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, television shows, video games, or Internet sources (players, influencers, actors, businessmen, politicians, leaders)  Albert Bandura’s Observational Learning (Modeling) /Social learning theory According to Bandura, learning can happen in the absence of external reinforcement as against skinner’s behaviorist theory. Internal mental states also have a role in learning. Learning does not necessarily lead to change in behavior. He proposed, four steps in the Modelling process to make learning successful. They are Attention, retention, reproduction and Motivation.  Five Factor Model / Big Five Personality Traits Theory Five factors theory or model is referred to as the Big Five personality traits. It is the most popular theory in personality psychology and the most accurate approximation of the basic trait dimensions. According to this theory, all traits can be grouped into five categories. They are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. A helpful way to remember the traits is by using the mnemonic OCEAN.  Five Factor Model / Big Five Personality Traits Theory Openness to experience is characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this trait tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests. People with high levels of openness to experience are creative, open to new ideas, like to take new challenges and happy to think about abstract concepts. Conscientiousness is characterized by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement- striving (goal-directed behavior). People who score high on this trait are hardworking and dependable. They spend time in preparation, finish important tasks right away, pay attention to details and enjoy having a set schedule.  Five Factor Model / Big Five Personality Traits Theory Extroversion is characterized by sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. People who score high on this trait are usually described as outgoing and warm. People who score high on this enjoy being center of attraction, likes to start conversations, enjoy meeting new people, have a wide social circle of friends, feels energized when people are around. Agreeableness, which is the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. People who score high on this have a great deal of interest in other people, care about others, have empathy , enjoy helping and contributing to the happiness of other people.  Five Factor Model / Big Five Personality Traits Theory Neuroticism is a tendency to experience negative emotions. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile (unfriendly). People who score high on this, experience a lot of stress, worry about many different things, get upset easily, experience dramatic shifts in mood, feel anxious and struggle to bounce back after stressful events. Five Factor Model / Big Five Personality Traits Theory Big Five theory is applied in employee selection, promotion, and career planning, as it helps in measuring the traits of individuals and placing them in right positions. Many organizations across the world use this test in their hiring process even today as the test provides reliable results. https://bigfive-test.com/  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs theory of motivation, in which in identified human motives range from the biological to individual to social. These needs are often depicted as a pyramid. At the bottom of the pyramid, is the physiological needs that are necessary for survival. It is followed by basic needs for security and safety, the need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging, and the need to have self-worth and confidence. On the top tier of the pyramid is self-actualization, which is a need to achieving one’s full potential. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Physiological needs: Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. So, they should be met first. Ex: Air, water, and food, clothing, shelter. Safety needs: With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. This refers to security, protection and stability. The safety needs include preference for safe working environment, job security, medical, insurance, pension, reasonable disability accommodations, etc. Social needs: They refer to the need to have friends, be loved by others, and be accepted by other people. For example, people may want to be a member in social groups such as entertainment clubs, professional organizations, sports teams. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self Esteem needs: All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect. Internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy and achievement. External esteem factors such as status, recognition and attention. Esteem presents the human desire to be accepted and valued by others. Self-actualization needs: includes growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment. This level of need refers to what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is one of the most popular theories in the area of Motivation. This theory helps managers in understanding the different needs of employees and motivate them accordingly Critical thinking: Discuss some ways to satisfy the Self-esteem and self-actualization needs of employees  Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor (1960) proposed two distinct views of human beings, namely Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X represents a pessimistic view of human nature, which in many ways is consistent with the assumptions of scientific management. Theory Y represents an optimistic view of human nature. According to McGregor, Theory Y assumptions are more valid than Theory X. Practices such as participative decision-making, maintaining good relations and providing challenging assignments would make employees to take more responsibility and perform well. Theory X and Theory Y Under Theory X, managers assume that: Under Theory Y, managers assume that people:  People do not like work and try to  work is a natural part of their lives avoid it  are internally motivated to achieve  managers have to control, direct,  are committed to goals to the degree that coerce, and threaten employees to get they receive personal rewards when them to work towards organizational they reach their objectives goals  Willing to seek and accept  people prefer to be directed, avoid responsibility responsibility, and want security – they have little ambition  can be innovative in solving organizational problems  are bright, but in organizations, their potentials are not fully utilised  Goal-setting theory In industrial-organizational psychology, the goal-setting theory uses goals as an incentive for individuals to complete tasks. According to this theory, task goals can be highly motivating if they are specific and not too difficult. Goals affect performance through four mechanisms namely 1. direct attention and effort to goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities 2. have an energizing function 3. affect persistence 4. affect action indirectly by leading to excitement, discovery, and use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies Job Characteristics Model Greg Oldham and Richard Hackman developed Job Characteristics model. The theory proposes five main factors to job design that will lead to increased employee motivation. They are:  Job Characteristics Model Skill variety: using a variety of different skills of importance to the worker. Task identity: high degree of task identity, where an employee completes a whole segment of work. Task significance: degree to which the job has a impact on the lives or work of other people. Autonomy: degree to which individuals have freedom and feel personally responsible for their work. Feedback: Finally the job should provide feedback on the level of accomplishment. Such feedback may be built into the task itself or it may stem from external sources (e.g., supervisors and coworkers). This model is considered relevant today in Industrial and Organizational Psychology. The theory states that when these five factors are present within job design, workers will be more engaged and motivated within their jobs  Kurt Lewin’s Change Model Change is inevitable for any organization that wants to grow. Kurt Lewin developed a Change Model involving three steps namely Unfreeze, Change, Refreeze. Lewin argues that to implement a change successfully, organizations must create a perception among employees that a change is needed and then move employees towards the desired change and make the change a new norm.  Unfreezing Changing Educate, train employees Refreeze Create awareness on why change is necessary about the change reinforcing, stabilizing and continuously to eliminate solidifying the change uncertainty, rumor and fear  Concepts in Change Model Unfreezing It is the natural tendency of human beings to resist any change. In Unfreezing stage, organizations should create an awareness among employees as to how the current practices are creating problems that hinder organization’s growth. All the old behavior, systems, policies must be carefully examined to show to the employees why a change is necessary to make the organization competitive. Organizations should communicate extensively with employees about the change and how it will benefit them.  Kurt Lewin’s Change Model Changing In this step, the actual change is implemented. During this stage, Employees may struggle with the change due uncertainty and fear. Education/training, communication and support is necessary at this stage for smooth implementation of the change. Gradually they will learn new behaviour, systems, procedures etc., Employees must be reminded about the benefits they would get from the change. Kurt Lewin’s Change Model Refreezing This refers to reinforcing, stabilizing and solidifying the change. The new goals, structure or system is internalized and people accept the change as the new norm. This stage is crucial and so management should take efforts to ensure that the employees should not revert to old behaviour. Rewards can be used to reinforce the new state as positively reinforced behaviors are likely to be repeated  Multiple Intelligences Theory This theory was developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist. In Gardner’s theory, each person possesses at least eight intelligences. Among these eight intelligences, a person typically excels in some and falters in others. Multiple Intelligences Theory Linguistic intelligence Ability to use written or spoken language well, perceives different functions of language, different sounds and meanings of words, may easily learn multiple languages. Suitable career: Journalist, novelist, poet, teacher Logical mathematical intelligence Ability to understand abstract symbols and capable of seeing numerical patterns, having strong ability to use reason and logic. Suitable career: Scientist, Mathematician Bodily kinesthetic intelligence High ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to perform various physical tasks: Suitable career: Dancer, athlete, athletic coach, yoga instructor Spatial intelligence Ability to reason well about spatial relations and perceive the relationship between objects and how they move in space. Suitable career : Architect, aviator, sailor  Multiple Intelligences Theory Musical intelligence ▫ Ability to compose and understand music and play musical instruments or perform as a vocalist, Composer, performer. Interpersonal intelligence ▫ Ability to understand and be sensitive to the various emotional states of others, people with high level of this intelligence can become successful in jobs such as Counselor, social worker, salesperson etc., Intrapersonal intelligence ▫ Ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to direct behavior and reach personal goals Suitable careers: Educator or Trainer Naturalist intelligence ▫ High capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species within it. Suitable careers: Biologist, ecologist, environmentalist Review Questions.. 1. Which psychological theory can be used in training people on new behaviors? Explain 2. Do you think punishments would be helpful in changing the behaviour of people? Critically analyze the advantages and drawbacks of punishment. 3. Why do people resist change? Which theory can be beneficial in implementing changes smoothly in organizations? Explain 4. Which psychological theory is helpful in the area of recruitment and selection? Explain.  Human Psychology Week 4 Dr. Aamna Mukhtar IBA, University of the Punjab Development “The process of growth and differentiation” Development refers to the progressive changes in size, shape, and function during the life of an organism by which its genetic potentials (genotype) are translated into functioning mature systems (phenotype). Genotype: genetic composition of a person. Phenotype: observable characteristics that can be observed and seen, Developmental Psychology The branch of psychology that studies how growth and physiological/ psychological/ social changes take place over the life span Human Development Biological sense: progressive change in size, shape, and function, of the body during the life span; the genetic potentials are translated into functioning adult systems Psychological sense: the ways by which physical, cognitive and psychosocial characteristics change over life span; such development is complex, systematic, and age- related Developmental changes can be quantitative and easy to measure such as height and weight and the expansion of vocabulary Developmental changes can be qualitative i.e., changes in kinds that are more complex and involve “leaps” in functioning. Learning Intelligence Emotional maturity Creativity Issues of Interest to Developmental Psychologists Is development continuous or discontinuous? Is development general or specific? Is development stable or changing? Humans active or passive beings? Nature versus Nurture Nature means hereditary influences. Nurture refers to environmental influences, in child development. Francis Galton "Hereditary Genius” (1869); “gifted individuals” tended to come from families, which had other gifted individuals. He went on to analyze biographical dictionaries and encyclopedias, and became convinced that talent in science, professions, and the arts, ran in families. Galton went even further arguing that it would be "quite practicable to produce a high gifted race of men by judicious marriages during several consecutive generations" For Galton "What Nature does blindly, slowly, and ruthlessly, man may do providently, quickly, and kindly” "Intelligence must be bred, not trained". The later scientists, especially the behaviorists contested such an approach and advocated the role and significance of environmental influences Prevalent Approach Both influences are essential and are mutually influential. The role of interaction between heredity and environment together is important. e.g., how a child responds to parenting—an environmental influence—is partly determined by the child’s temperament and other inherited characteristics. The environment influences how hereditary characteristics develop and are expressed e.g. increase in average height during the last century because of improved nutrition and medical care. Even though many features of personality are based on inherited temperament, the family environment is an important influence on a child’s personality development. A child with a difficult or unpredictable temperament can develop positively in a warm and loving family environment. Intelligence is an inherited feature but the way it is utilized largely depends on the environmental conditions. Characteristics with Strong Genetic Components Physical Characteristics Intellectual Characteristics Emotional Characteristics and Disorders Physical Characteristics Height Weight Obesity Tone of voice Blood Pressure Intellectual Characteristics Memory Ability as measured on intelligence test Age of language acquisition Reading disability Mental retardation Emotional Characteristics and Disorders Shyness Extraversion Emotionality Prenatal Environmental Influences Mother’s nutrition and emotional state Illness of mother Mother’s use of drugs Birth complications