Motivation and Behavior Theory PDF

9.1: From Instincts to Drives- Notes on Motivation and Behavior State of Idling ○ Reflects moments of doing nothing at all (e.g., parked, motor idling). ○ Reasons for leaving this state can include: Need to go to the bathroom...

9.1: From Instincts to Drives- Notes on Motivation and Behavior State of Idling ○ Reflects moments of doing nothing at all (e.g., parked, motor idling). ○ Reasons for leaving this state can include: Need to go to the bathroom Hunger Boredom Loneliness Pressure to be productive Motives ○ Defined as internal forces that drive us to act in various ways. ○ One universal motive is not sufficient to explain behavior; multiple types exist. ○ These motives can pull us in different directions. Research on Motivation ○ Early researchers focused on evolutionary heritage to define key motives as instincts. ○ Others examined motives as drives to restore the body’s internal balance. Limitations of Instinct and Drive Theories ○ Instinct theory does not fully account for the diversity of motives. ○ Drive theories focus on general-purpose motives: Avoiding pain Seeking pleasure ○ Domain-specific motives also exist: Eating Sex Belonging Achievement Role of Emotions ○ Important in understanding motivations and whether we can regulate them. Instincts in Psychology ○ Early theorists viewed motives as instincts (genetically endowed tendencies). ○ William James (1890) compared human behavior to spiders spinning webs and birds building nests. ○ Psychologists compiled lists of instincts believed to govern behavior. William McDougall (1923) identified 13 instincts, such as: Parenting Food seeking Repulsion Curiosity Gregariousness (social contact) Problems with Instinct Lists ○ Different theorists generated varying lists of instincts. ○ Luther Bernard (1924) counted over 5,000 proposed instincts. ○ Questioning the validity of instincts (e.g., explaining parenting by a "parenting instinct"). Homeostasis ○ Defined as maintaining a consistent internal environment (Claude Bernard).  ○Each organism has both an external environment (interactions, physical surroundings) and an internal environment (salts, oxygen levels, nutrients). ○ Internal conditions must remain stable to avoid harm or death. Mechanisms of Stability ○ Internal mechanisms maintain stability despite external changes. ○ Motives compensate for environmental changes to keep internal conditions within limits. Drive and Homeostasis ○ Deviations from homeostasis create biological and psychological tension known as a drive (e.g., drive to eat, sleep). ○ Drives initiate behavior that reduces tension, helping to restore equilibrium (drive-reduction account of motivation). Physiological Responses ○ Example: When cold, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system. Actions include: Constricting blood vessels (limits heat loss) Promoting shivering (generates heat) ○ Behavior may include seeking warmth or wearing additional clothing. Anticipation of Future States ○ Individuals can prepare for future conditions: Packing warm clothes for a ski trip despite current warmth. Bringing swimsuits for a tropical trip even while feeling cold. 9.2: The Avoidance of Pain- Drive Theory and Motivation Drive Theory: Suggests that various sources of tension motivate individuals to act. Desire to Avoid Pain: A simpler motivation; includes: ○ Tension associated with drives. ○ Physical pain from tissue injury or irritation. ○ Psychological pain from social rejection. Pain as a General-Purpose Signal: Indicates that something is wrong and requires attention. Pain Matrix Common Brain Network: Known as the pain matrix, consisting of multiple brain regions, including the amygdala. ○ Underlies both sensory and emotional components of pain. ○ Triggers a behavioral response, typically withdrawal. Examples of Activation: ○ Stubbing a toe or experiencing social rejection activates the pain matrix. ○ Anticipatory dread (e.g., waiting for a shot) also activates this network. Motivational Role of Pain Specific and General Roles:  ○ Pain signals provide specific information (e.g., “There’s a burning sensation in my right hand”) and motivate specific responses (e.g., “I need to move my hand away from the stove”). ○ Different types of pain overlap, providing a common way to express undesirable states. Concurrent Motives: ○ Individuals may experience multiple pain-related impulses simultaneously (e.g., wanting to relieve back pain while feeling hungry). Pain-Inducing Behaviors Engaging in Pain: ○ People may act in ways that increase rather than decrease pain. ○ Examples include: Running until legs ache. Studying until headaches occur. Professionals (war journalists, boxers, firefighters) enduring pain for higher-valued goals. ○ Pain may be viewed as necessary for achieving specific goals ("no pain, no gain"). Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) Definition: Self-harming behaviors not intended for suicide, includes: ○ Cutting ○ Burning ○ Stabbing ○ Hitting ○ Excessive rubbing (not for socially sanctioned purposes like body piercing). Research and Public Awareness: ○ Increased interest in NSSI from research and media, including celebrity discussions (e.g., Angelina Jolie, Demi Lovato). ○ Depictions in movies like Girl, Interrupted and TV shows like Oprah. Prevalence and Demographics: ○ Approximately 4% of adults report engaging in NSSI. ○ Higher prevalence during adolescence (10-15%). ○ Median onset age for NSSI is 14 years; both males and females are equally likely to engage. Treatment and Help: ○ Many individuals with NSSI do not receive treatment; over half report no treatment despite available options. Escape-from-Self Hypothesis Hypothesis Overview: ○ Physical pain can focus attention on the present injury and the associated pain. ○ This focus can diminish awareness of broader negative feelings (e.g., hopelessness or depression). Motivation Behind NSSI: ○ May serve to decrease overall psychological suffering, as physical pain can provide a temporary escape from deeper emotional pain.  Summary of Motivation: ○ Even NSSI may be driven by a desire to alleviate pain, where physical pain temporarily overshadows more significant psychological distress. 9.3: The pursuit of pleasure- Avoidance of Pain: Many behaviors are governed by efforts to avoid or reduce painful states. ○ Neutrality Limitation: Remaining "neutral" to avoid pain would lead to a monotonous life (e.g., being locked in closets with helmets). Seeking Pleasure: Beyond avoiding pain, humans are also motivated to seek out positive, pleasurable states. ○ Incentives: Positive goals we strive to achieve. Intrinsic Rewards: Rewards inherent to the activity or object (e.g., playing basketball for enjoyment). Extrinsic Rewards: Rewards not integral to the activity but associated with it (e.g., getting paid for mowing the lawn). Common Currency: Both pleasure and pain serve as common currencies that allow individuals to weigh which pleasures to pursue at any given moment. Differences Between Pain and Pleasure Anticipation vs. Receipt: ○ Pleasure: It is crucial to distinguish between: Wanting: Anticipating and actively seeking something good. Liking: Actually receiving something good. ○ Pain Matrix: Activated during both anticipation and receipt of painful stimuli, contrasting with pleasure. Historical Research on Reward Systems Early Research: ○ Olds & Milner (1954): Conducted experiments using electrical stimulation of rat brains. Findings: Stimulation in specific regions led rats to repeat behaviors (e.g., returning to the stimulated location). Behavioral Evidence: When stimulation was contingent on bar presses, rats pressed the bar at high rates for extended periods, indicating strong motivation for stimulation. Modern Neuroimaging: ○ Confirmed early findings, showing different brain regions engage in reward anticipation (wanting) versus reward delivery (liking). ○ Key Studies: Berridge & Robinson (2003): Explored reward anticipation and delivery. Jiang et al. (2015): Contributed to understanding of reward systems. Schultz et al. (2000): Added insights into reward mechanisms. Notable Human Study  Knutson et al. (2001): ○ Method: Used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during a task involving cues and target responses. ○ Task Outcome: Participants could win $1 if they responded quickly, with success adjusted to approximately two-thirds of the time. ○ Findings: Different brain regions are associated with anticipation (wanting) versus receipt (liking) of rewards. Definitions Intrinsically Rewarding: Activities pursued for their own sake. Extrinsically Rewarding: Activities pursued for rewards not inherent to the activity itself. 9.4: Physiological Aspects of Hunger and Eating- A.L. Washburn's Experiment (1912): Experiment Setup: A.L. Washburn swallowed a balloon and inflated it to measure stomach contractions by observing changes in air pressure. Observations: ○ Made notes whenever he felt hunger pangs. ○ Found a close association between the timing of stomach contractions and hunger pangs. Conclusion: This led to the hypothesis that stomach contractions play a significant role in eating behavior. Subsequent Findings: ○ Later research indicated that removing the stomach and its nerves in rats did not eliminate eating, suggesting that hunger is influenced by factors beyond stomach contractions. Glucostatic Hypothesis: Definition: Proposes that the body primarily regulates hunger based on blood glucose levels, which serve as the main energy source. Mechanism of Action: ○ Low Blood Glucose Levels: Glucoreceptors in the brain and peripheral regions activate the lateral hypothalamus. This activation leads to feelings of hunger and an increase in eating behavior. ○ High Blood Glucose Levels: Glucoreceptors signal the ventromedial hypothalamus. This action results in decreased hunger and reduced food intake. Dual-Center Theory: ○ Lateral Hypothalamus: Acts as the "go" center, stimulating eating. ○ Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Acts as the "stop" center, inhibiting eating. Research on Hypothalamic Functions:  Ventromedial Hypothalamic Lesions: ○ Studies show that rats with surgical lesions in the ventromedial hypothalamus disrupted satiety signals, leading to extreme overeating. Role of Other Signals: ○ Various regions in the hypothalamus receive eating-related signals. ○ Cholecystokinin (CCK): A peptide released from the intestinal tract that favors stopping eating. ○ Neuropeptide Y (NPY): A potent hunger-inducing signal released by the hypothalamus that promotes eating. Stomach Signals and Nutrient Specificity: Stomach signals influence not only the decision to eat but also what food is chosen. Research Example: ○ In one study, protein-deprived rats were offered fats and carbohydrates but predominantly consumed protein, indicating their bodies tracked specific nutritional deficits. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Appetite Control: Short-Term Control: Focuses primarily on glucose levels to regulate immediate hunger sensations. Long-Term Control: Involves mechanisms that manage fat storage and energy reserves. ○ Adipose Cells: Distributed throughout the body, these fat cells absorb fatty acids produced by the liver. They swell as they store energy and release fatty acids into the bloodstream when energy is needed. Lipostatic Hypothesis: Concept: Explains how the body maintains energy balance by regulating fat stores. Leptin: ○ A hormone secreted by full fat cells that signals to the brain that there is sufficient fat stored. ○ Inhibits further eating and is crucial for long-term food intake regulation. Ghrelin: ○ Secreted by the stomach lining when fat stores are low, promoting the sensation of hunger and encouraging eating. Set Points in Weight Regulation: Definition: The idea that animals maintain a caloric body weight set point, similar to how a thermostat regulates temperature. Observational Evidence: ○ When food is available, animals tend to consume amounts that keep their weight constant. Dieting Effects: ○ Crash dieters often revert to their original weight after dieting due to compensatory mechanisms, suggesting that the body defends its weight set point.  ○ Metabolic Rate Adjustments: The body reduces its metabolic rate when caloric intake decreases, which helps maintain the set point. Flexibility of Set Points: ○ The weight set point appears to be adjustable; gradual weight changes can alter the defended weight, leading to the concept of a flexible or floating set point. 9.5: Environmental Influences on Hunger and Eating- Environmental Factors: Impact of Sights and Smells: ○ Environmental cues, such as seeing appetizing pastries or smelling buttery popcorn, can stimulate feelings of hunger and lead to eating, even when there is no actual caloric need. Obvious vs. Subtle Cues: ○ Some factors (like enticing visuals and aromas) are clear, while others are less obvious and can sneak up on individuals. Serving Sizes and Unit Bias: Larger Portions: ○ Serving portions in the United States have increased over time. ○ International food chains tend to serve larger portions in American locations compared to their counterparts in other countries. Unit Bias: ○ The concept of unit bias refers to the size of what is considered a single serving. ○ This bias may contribute to rising obesity levels in the U.S. and other countries. Social Context: Eating with Others: ○ Research shows that people typically consume more food when eating in groups compared to eating alone. ○ Example Study: College students eating ice cream in groups consumed twice as much as those eating alone (Berry et al., 1985). Exceptions: ○ Being with someone who is not eating or feeling self-conscious about eating can lead to reduced consumption. ○ A study indicated that women eating with men consumed significantly fewer calories than those dining with other women (Young et al., 2009), possibly due to societal norms around femininity and food consumption. Cultural Norms and Standards: Efforts in Food Intake Control: ○ Many individuals strive to control their food intake to achieve specific body weights or clothing sizes, reflecting cultural ideals. Changing Standards of Beauty:  ○ Historical context shows that ideals of beauty change over time. For example, women depicted by Rubens in the 1600s were considered ideal, while today’s supermodels might be seen as undernourished by those standards (Figure 9.10). Variability in Delicacies: ○ Different cultures have unique perceptions of what is considered a delicacy. Examples include: Lamb heads in Norway Duck embryos in Southeast Asia Calves’ brains in the southern United States Fried tarantulas in Cambodia Tuna eyeballs in Japan (Figure 9.11). Timing of Meals: Cultural Influences on Meal Times: ○ Different cultures also dictate when meals are consumed. For instance: Many Europeans may feel hungry for their main meal in the early afternoon. Most Americans typically eat their main meal in the evening. Conclusion: ○ Feeding patterns are not solely determined by biological factors but are heavily influenced by cultural settings and the social cues individuals are exposed to. 9.6: Eating Disorder- Regulation of Food Intake: The mechanisms that help control food intake are generally effective but not flawless. Consequences of Regulation Failures: ○ Some individuals may become overweight, while others may become underweight. ○ Being underweight can be linked to: Poverty and Malnutrition: These are significant issues in various regions, including the United States. Eating Disorders: These can disrupt healthy eating patterns, leading to underweight conditions even when food is accessible. Anorexia Nervosa: Definition: Anorexia nervosa is characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight and an unhealthy obsession with food and dieting. Symptoms: ○ Individuals with anorexia often perceive themselves as overweight, even when they are dangerously thin. ○ They engage in excessive self-monitoring: Spending significant time measuring body parts. Critically examining themselves in mirrors. ○ Psychological Impact: Any small weight change (decrease or increase) is perceived as significant, leading to extreme emotional responses. Behavioral Patterns: ○ Individuals often pursue extreme dieting and may utilize harmful practices such as:  Excessive exercise. Purging: Inducing vomiting or misusing laxatives and diuretics to lose weight. Prevalence: ○ Approximately 1 in 100 women in the United States will experience anorexia nervosa in their lifetime. ○ Men are three times less likely to develop this disorder. Associated Risks: ○ Anorexia nervosa can lead to life-threatening health issues due to extreme dieting: Dangerous deficiencies in electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium, which are crucial for muscle and nerve functions. Individuals with milder cases may recover fully, while others may experience ongoing fluctuations in weight. Treatment Importance: ○ Receiving empirically supported treatment is crucial for improving outcomes. Genetic and Sociocultural Factors: Genetic Component: ○ Individuals with close relatives who have anorexia nervosa are 10 times more likely to develop the disorder. Sociocultural Influences: ○ Anorexia is more common in cultures that emphasize thinness as an ideal compared to those that do not associate thinness with beauty. Bulimia Nervosa: Definition: Bulimia nervosa involves a preoccupation with weight and appearance, leading to disordered eating behaviors. Characteristics: ○ Unlike anorexia, individuals with bulimia often maintain a normal weight. ○ Binge Eating: Involves consuming large amounts of food in a short time (e.g., within 2 hours) while feeling little or no control over the eating process. ○ Compensatory Behaviors: Actions taken to prevent weight gain following binge eating, including: Self-induced vomiting. Misusing laxatives or diuretics. Engaging in extreme exercise. Prevalence: ○ Approximately 1 to 2 in 100 women in the United States will experience bulimia nervosa in their lifetime. ○ It is three times more common in women than in men. Health Implications: ○ Long-term risks include: Electrolyte imbalances. Dental problems due to vomiting, leading to erosion of dental enamel. Binge-Eating Disorder:  Definition: Binge-eating disorder is characterized by repeated episodes of binge eating without subsequent compensatory behaviors. Characteristics: ○ Binge eating occurs at least once per week for 3 months. ○ Individuals do not engage in purging or other compensatory actions. Prevalence: ○ Lifetime prevalence ranges from 1-3%, occurring across various ethnic and cultural groups. ○ It is thought to be twice as likely in women than in men. Comorbidities: ○ Often associated with other mental health disorders, including: Depression and anxiety disorders. Substance use disorders. Borderline personality disorder. Cultural Influences on Eating Disorders: Cultural and societal standards greatly influence perceptions of body weight and beauty. Cultural Variability: ○ Different cultures have varying standards for beauty and acceptable body sizes. ○ Certain foods are considered delicacies in some cultures but not in others (e.g., lamb heads, duck embryos, fried tarantulas). The societal context shapes not just how much we eat but also what we consider attractive and desirable. Definitions: Anorexia Nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by an extreme concern with being overweight and compulsive dieting, sometimes to the point of self-starvation. Bulimia Nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by repeated binge-and-purge episodes. Binge-Eating Disorder: An eating disorder characterized by repeated episodes of binge eating without inappropriate compensatory behavior. 9.7: Obesity- Definition and Measurement: Body Mass Index (BMI): ○ BMI is calculated as a person’s weight in kilograms divided by the square of their height in meters. ○ BMI Categories: Normal Weight: BMI between 18.5 and 24.9. Overweight: BMI between 25 and 29.9. Obese: BMI of 30 or more. Source: World Health Organization (WHO), 1998. Rising Obesity Rates: Global Concern: Obesity has become a significant focus due to increasing prevalence rates.  Statistics: ○ Approximately two-thirds of Americans are overweight, with half of that group classified as obese (Flegal et al., 2010; Ogden et al., 2017). ○ Projections indicate that by 2030, one in two adults will be obese (Ward et al., 2019). Obesity Epidemic: ○ WHO has labeled obesity as a “global epidemic” (Ravussin & Bouchard, 2000). ○ Rates have doubled or tripled in many countries over the past few decades. ○ In Mexico, the percentage of the population that is overweight increased from 62% to 70% from 2000 to 2006. ○ The percentage of people who are obese in Mexico rose from 24% to 30%. ○ Worldwide, obesity has more than doubled since 1980. In 2014, there were 1.9 billion adults over the age of 18 who were overweight, with 600 million classified as obese (WHO, 2015). Health Risks Associated with Obesity: Health Consequences: ○ Being overweight or obese is linked to a higher risk of several health conditions, including: Type 2 Diabetes. Cardiovascular Disease. Certain Types of Cancer (Cecchini et al., 2010; Must et al., 1999; Olshansky et al., 2005). ○ Life Expectancy: Obesity is associated with a shorter life expectancy. Research Findings: ○ A study of 3,457 participants aged 30-49 showed that: 40-year-old nonsmoking women who were overweight lost 3.3 years of expected life; those who were obese lost 7.1 years. 40-year-old nonsmoking men who were overweight lost 3.1 years; those who were obese lost 5.8 years. ○ Findings indicate that the impact of obesity on mortality is similar to that of smoking, even after adjusting for exercise and education. Caveats Regarding Health Risks: It is important to note that: ○ Individuals who are not obese can still be unhealthy, and conversely, some individuals who are obese can be healthy. ○ Estimates suggest that one-third to three-quarters of those who are obese may be metabolically healthy (Rey-Lopez et al., 2014). ○ The stigma associated with obesity can negatively impact health, leading to increased stress and poor healthcare access (Tomiyama et al., 2018; Major et al., 2018; S. M. Phelan et al., 2015). Stigma and Societal Responses: Stigmatization of Obesity: ○ Obesity carries significant stigma, affecting individuals' mental and physical health.  ○ Advocacy groups, like the National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance, work to combat discrimination related to obesity. ○ Negative stigma is deeply rooted and resistant to change, sometimes leading to counterproductive interventions (Charlesworth & Banaji, 2019; Hobbes, 2018). Evolutionary Perspective: Thrifty Gene Hypothesis: ○ Proposes that human ancestors who lived in environments with unpredictable food supplies favored individuals with efficient metabolisms that stored fat. ○ This trait may have provided a survival advantage during food shortages. ○ Natural selection may have favored genes that regulate fat storage. Impact of Environment: Modern environments significantly affect long-term energy balance. While thrifty genes helped ancestors maintain a healthy weight, today’s affluent culture encourages easy access to high-calorie foods. Rapid increases in obesity rates are attributed to changes in diet and decreased physical activity rather than genetic changes. Challenges in Addressing Obesity: Combating obesity is complex; merely advising individuals to avoid unnecessary eating is insufficient. The modern environment is filled with caloric surpluses and temptations to eat unhealthy foods. The body has complex pathways that regulate long-term energy balance, making it difficult to change eating behaviors. Societal and Individual-Level Solutions: Public health initiatives may include: ○ Educating on the importance of healthy eating and physical activity. ○ Implementing policies to facilitate the purchase of healthy foods over unhealthy options. ○ Regulatory measures for food labeling and restricting marketing of unhealthy food to children. Such interventions could reduce health-related expenses and help diminish the stigma associated with obesity. 9.8: Physiological Aspects of Sex- Sexual Receptivity in Animals Estrus: ○ Defined as the period when female mammals are sexually receptive and biologically prepared to mate. ○ The timing of estrus varies among species; for instance, female rats experience estrus for about 15 hours every 4 days. ○ Outside of this period, female rats will aggressively reject male advances.  Behavioral Changes During Estrus: ○ During estrus, females exhibit distinct behaviors such as retreating in small hops and wiggling their ears in response to male approaches, indicating receptivity. 2. Hormonal Regulation of Estrus Hormonal Play: ○ The behavior of female rats during estrus is influenced by the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and ovaries. ○ Follicle Maturation: Follicles in the ovaries mature under pituitary secretions, producing estrogen, which stimulates the hypothalamus, making the female sexually receptive. Stages of Estrus: ○ First Act: Follicles mature, leading to estrogen production. ○ Second Act: Mature egg release and peak estrogen levels, initiating estrus. ○ Third Act: Ruptured follicles secrete progesterone, thickening the uterine lining for potential embryo reception. 3. Human Sexual Response Differences in Sexual Activity: ○ Humans have less automatic sexual behaviors compared to other animals, such as rats. ○ Human females can engage in sexual activity throughout their menstrual cycle, unlike spayed females that stop after surgery. Libido and Hormones: ○ Libido, or sexual interest, is correlated with testosterone levels in both men and women. ○ Men with higher testosterone levels generally exhibit stronger sex drives. 4. Menstrual Cycle Influence on Behavior Women’s sexual preferences and behaviors can change throughout their menstrual cycle, particularly around ovulation. 5. Phases of Human Sexual Response Cycle (Masters & Johnson, 1966) Phases: ○ Excitement Phase: Increased heart rate, muscle tension, and blood flow to sexual organs. In men: Penis erection. In women: Swelling of the clitoris and vaginal lubrication. ○ Plateau Phase: Continued increases in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension. Tightening of muscles at the base of the penis (men) and in the vagina (women). ○ Orgasm Phase: Heightened arousal with rhythmic muscle contractions leading to ejaculation in men and vaginal contractions in women. ○ Resolution Phase: Decrease in heart rate and blood pressure, relaxation of muscles. Refractory Period: Post-orgasm, men enter a phase where another orgasm is not possible for a duration that varies with age. 6. Estrus Definition  Estrus: A female mammal’s period of sexual receptivity. 9.9: Environmental Influences on Sexual Behavior- The Role of Sexual Arousal in Behavior Sexual Environment: ○ Society is filled with sexual imagery and innuendo (e.g., jokes, gossip, advertisements). ○ The prevalence of sexual images raises questions about their effects on sexual behavior. Responses to Sexual Materials: ○ Historically, it was thought that men's and women's responses to sexually explicit materials differed due to men's generally higher reported sexual arousal. ○ Research indicates that sexually explicit materials are primarily designed for male appeal. Study Insights: ○ In studies where women chose explicit films, both genders showed no difference in arousal (Janssen et al., 2003). ○ These materials are generally sexually arousing in various contexts. Impact of Sexually Explicit Materials on Behavior Short-term Effects: ○ Exposure to sexually explicit materials can increase the likelihood of engaging in sexual behavior shortly after viewing (Both et al., 2004). Long-term Effects: ○ The long-term impact of exposure to sexually explicit materials remains less clear. ○ Some studies indicate negative long-term effects: Viewing explicit films can lead to dissatisfaction with partners and sexual performance (Zillmann & Bryant, 1988). For adolescents, exposure is associated with sexual uncertainty and lack of clarity in sexual beliefs (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008). Engaging with sexually explicit video games may lead to endorsing more exploitative behaviors (Yao et al., 2010). Conflicting Evidence: ○ Other studies show no negative association between pornography consumption and attitudes toward women, suggesting a decrease in rates of rape correlating with increased pornography access (Ferguson & Harley, 2009). ○ This area remains hotly debated, with researchers concluding a lack of convincing empirical evidence for long-term negative effects. Conclusion Understanding the Impact: ○ Exposure to sexual imagery can influence sexual behavior, with significant short-term arousal effects but varying long-term outcomes. ○ The relationship between sexual materials and behavior is complex and influenced by various factors, including gender, context, and personal beliefs. 9.10: Sexual Orientation- Sexual Orientation: ○ Typically predates an individual's first sexual encounters. ○ For many, sexual orientation feels inherent from a young age. ○ Children as young as 3 or 4 begin to show feelings of attraction toward a specific sex. ○ Gender conformity/nonconformity can predict later sexual orientation. ○ Initial curiosity about genitals and sex is common in early childhood. First Real Sexual Attraction: ○ Usually begins around age 10. ○ Romantic fantasies involving either gender are typical. Kinsey Report: ○ Over 80% of American men identify as exclusively heterosexual. ○ 4% identify as exclusively gay or lesbian. ○ The prevalence of exclusive same-sex attraction among women is about 2%. Determinants of Sexual Orientation Genetic Influence: ○ Studies indicate a genetic component to sexual orientation. ○ Identical twins have a higher concordance rate for nonheterosexuality than fraternal twins. ○ Example findings: Identical twin males: 52% chance of also being nonheterosexual if their twin is. Fraternal twin males: 22% chance. Identical twin females: 48% chance. Fraternal twin females: 16% chance. Environmental and Neurodevelopmental Factors: ○ Neurodevelopmental Perspective: Sexual orientation is embedded in brain circuitry during fetal development. ○ Studies suggest that handedness may correlate with sexual orientation. ○ Fraternal Birth Order Effect: Gay men are more likely to have older brothers, with each additional brother increasing the likelihood of being gay by about 33%. Diverse Sexual Orientations Diverse sexual orientations are common across many species. Being Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual: ○ Considered "abnormal" only in the context of being different from the majority. ○ Variables influencing the quality and stability of same-sex relationships are similar to heterosexual relationships. Sexual Arousal and Behavior Sexual Arousal: ○ Generally, men report greater sexual arousal in response to sexually explicit materials than women. ○ Most sexually explicit materials are primarily designed to appeal to men.  Short-term Effects of Exposure: ○ Exposure to sexually explicit materials can increase the likelihood of engaging in sexual behavior for several hours afterward. Long-term Effects: ○ Research indicates potential negative long-term effects: Viewing sexually explicit films may lead to lower satisfaction with partners' appearance and performance. Exposure to sexually explicit material among adolescents may result in sexual uncertainty or lack of clarity about sexual beliefs. Playing sexually explicit video games can lead to the endorsement of more exploitative sexual behaviors. Contradictory Research: ○ Some studies show no long-term negative effects of pornography consumption. ○ Data suggest a negative correlation between pornography consumption and rates of rape; as access to pornography has increased, rates of rape have declined. 9.11: The Motive to Belong- Sexual Orientation Definition: Sexual orientation typically predates an individual’s first sexual encounters. Early Recognition: Children can have feelings of attraction towards a specific sex as early as age 3 or 4 (A. P. Bell et al., 1981). Patterns of Attraction: Early patterns of gender conformity or nonconformity in childhood predict later sexual orientation (Rieger et al., 2008). First Sexual Attraction: Usually begins around age 10 (Herdt & McClintock, 2000). Romantic fantasies involving males or females are common at this age (Green, 1979; Zuger, 1984). Kinsey's Research: ○ Over 80% of American men describe themselves as exclusively heterosexual; 4% identify as gay or lesbian (Kinsey et al., 1948). ○ A later survey indicated that 90% of men and 91% of women identify as heterosexual, with 5.1% of men and 7.2% of women identifying as bisexual (Rahman et al., 2020). Genetic Influence Identical Twin Studies: ○ If a man’s identical twin is nonheterosexual, the chance he will also be is 52%. For fraternal twins, the chance drops to 22% (J. M. Bailey & Pillard, 1991). ○ For women, the chance is 48% for identical twins and 16% for fraternal twins (J. M. Bailey et al., 1993). Neurodevelopmental Perspective: Proposes that sexual orientation is built into brain circuitry early in fetal development (Rahman, 2005). ○ Handedness Correlation: Studies show gay and lesbian participants are more likely to be non-right-handed (Lalumière et al., 2000). ○ Fraternal Birth Order Effect: Each older brother increases the likelihood of being gay by about 33% (Blanchard, 2001, 2004). Social Relationships and the Need to Belong Human Desire for Connection: People inherently seek to belong and maintain friendships; severing these connections causes distress. Temporary Relationships: Even brief interactions can lead to feelings of disappointment when they end. Concern for Acceptance: Individuals care deeply about how others perceive them and strive for acceptance, influencing behaviors and decisions beyond just adolescence. Emotional and Psychological Impacts Loneliness and Health: Loneliness can lead to psychological issues, including depression. Studies show that loneliness predicts later feelings of depression, regardless of social isolation measures (Cacioppo et al., 2010). Physical Health Risks: Loneliness has been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular problems and early mortality (A. Caspi et al., 2006; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015). Benefits of Social Interaction Positive Emotion Correlation: Social interaction is a predictor of positive emotions, and increased positive emotions enhance social interactions (D. Watson & Clark, 1994). Meditation Study Findings: Training in meditation led to increased positive emotions, which fostered a greater perception of social support (Fredrickson et al., 2008). Social Media's Role: Social media platforms enable connections across vast distances, increasing communication and access to information. Tangible Support from Relationships Practical Help: Connections provide practical assistance, such as borrowing money or advice on personal matters. Emotional Support: Emotional support can be direct (e.g., friends comforting one another) or indirect, derived from social connections that enrich life experiences. 9.12: The motive to achieve- Motivation and Achievement State of Fulfillment: ○ Envision being warm, comfortable, safe, and surrounded by people who love you. ○ Even with these motives satisfied (food, sex, social connection), this state would not be entirely fulfilling. ○ Missing aspect: motivation to create, accomplish, and achieve. Achievement Motivation: ○ Has a dual aspect: Desire to avoid failing.  Desire to succeed (Bartels & Magun-Jackson, 2009). ○ Historical context: Achievement-related behavior can arise from: Fear of failure (avoidance). Desire for success (McClelland et al., 1953). ○ Independence of Motives: Fear of failure and desire for success are independent. Individuals motivated by success seek challenges and excel under difficult circumstances (McClelland, 1989). Performance vs. Mastery Orientation Performance Orientation: ○ Focuses on performing well and appearing smart, or avoiding failure and not appearing stupid. ○ Linked to avoidance motivation; individuals may withdraw effort when faced with negative feedback (Dweck, 1999, 2006). Mastery Orientation: ○ Characterized by a focus on learning and improving. ○ Associated with high interest levels and deep engagement with material. ○ An approach motivation; individuals increase effort and seek to benefit from experiences despite adversity (Senko et al., 2008). Factors Influencing Orientation Child Development: ○ Children adopt performance or mastery orientations based on their assumptions about their abilities. ○ Fixed Mindset: Belief that abilities are static and unlikely to change. ○ Growth Mindset: Belief that abilities can evolve through new experiences and learning. Impact of Mindsets: ○ Different mindsets influence intellectual growth by shaping motivations and behaviors, leading to various consequences (Mangels et al., 2006). ○ Figure 9.25 illustrates: Fixed Mindset: Sees effort as pointless. Avoids challenges. Responds to setbacks by giving up. Growth Mindset: Sees effort as crucial for success. Welcomes challenges. Responds to setbacks by working harder. Consequences of Mindsets Fixed Mindset: ○ Focus on looking smart leads individuals to shy away from challenging activities.  ○ Example: A student might avoid demanding courses or drop classes after receiving a low grade. Growth Mindset: ○ Focus on mastering new knowledge leads individuals to seek challenging activities that promote intellectual growth. ○ Individuals facing setbacks may increase effort or seek help. Changing Mindsets Mindsets about intelligence are not fixed and can be altered: ○ Teaching students that the brain can grow through effort changes their mindsets and improves academic performance (J. Aronson et al., 2002; Blackwell et al., 2007; Good et al., 2003; Paunesku et al., 2015). ○ Study Example: Junior high students assigned to a group that taught them about brain growth showed increased motivation and better grades compared to those in a regular study skills group. Key Terminology Performance Orientation: ○ A motivational stance that focuses on performing well and looking smart. Mastery Orientation: ○ A motivational stance that focuses on learning and improving. 9.13: Organizing Motives- Theories of Motivation Variety of Motives: ○ Theorists identify a vast array of motives, including: Lower Motives: e.g., hunger, sex. Higher Motives: e.g., affiliation, achievement, autonomy, control, competence, power, self-enhancement, understanding, meaning. Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives Maslow's Framework (1943, 1954): ○ Described a hierarchy of motives: Lower-order physiological motives are at the bottom. Safety motives are higher up. Belonging motives follow. Esteem motives are higher yet. Self-Actualization: The desire to realize one’s potential is at the top of the hierarchy. Self-Transcendence: ○ In the years before his death, Maslow proposed a higher motive: Self-Transcendence: The desire to further a cause beyond oneself (e.g., truth, social justice, religious faith).  Conflict of Motives: ○ Maslow's framework explains individual responses when multiple motives conflict: A motive can become active only after lower motives (e.g., hunger, thirst) are satisfied. Critiques of Maslow's Hierarchy: ○ Limited empirical support for the hierarchy (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976). ○ Examples of exceptions: Poets may choose to starve rather than stop writing. Martyrs may uphold their faith despite suffering. ○ Suggests flexibility in the ordering of motives; relative importance may vary by culture: Individualistic societies often prioritize self-actualization over self-transcendence. Collectivist societies may reverse this order. Dweck's Approach to Motives Dweck's Model (2017): ○ Focuses on higher psychological motives. ○ All psychological motives derive from needs. ○ Basic Needs: 1. Universally valued, essential for well-being, present from early life: 1. Acceptance: Need for belonging. 2. Predictability: Understanding relationships among events and things. 3. Competence: Skills for interacting successfully with the world. Compound Needs: ○ Emerge from combinations of basic needs: 1. Trust: Combination of acceptance and predictability. 2. Control: Combination of predictability and competence. 3. Self-Esteem/Status: Combination of acceptance and competence. 4. Self-Coherence: Reflects the need to feel psychologically whole. Motives and Goals Role of Motives: ○ Motives energize and direct behavior (Reeve, 2005). ○ Basic and Compound Needs: Provide energy for behavior. Direction of Behavior: ○ Specific direction is provided by goals designed to meet needs: Example: When the need for acceptance is activated, one might aim to meet new people, leading to finding someone approachable and starting a conversation. This illustrates how universal needs can result in tailored actions. Key Terminology Hierarchy of Motives: ○ The order in which needs become dominant. ○ Higher-order needs (self-actualization, self-transcendence) are pursued only after lower needs (food, safety) are met. Self-Actualization:  ○ The desire to realize one’s full potential. 9.14: Behavioral Aspects of Emotion- Emotion: ○ Defined as the coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes that occur when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals (Scherer et al., 2001). Focus of Study This study unit will concentrate on the behavioral aspects of emotion, while subsequent units will address other components of emotion. Behavioral Tendencies Associated with Emotion General Tendencies: ○ Approaching emotionally positive stimuli. ○ Withdrawing from emotionally negative stimuli (Lang & Bradley, 2010). Specific Expressions: ○ Includes smiles, frowns, laughs, gapes, and grimaces. ○ Facial expressions have significant communicative value in psychology. Evolutionary Perspective on Facial Expressions Charles Darwin's Hypothesis (1872): ○ Facial expressions are part of our evolutionary heritage, reflecting adaptive patterns from ancestors. ○ For example, an "anger" face may be characterized by: Lowered brows. Widened eyes. Open mouth with exposed teeth, mirroring expressions used when biting an opponent. Evidence Supporting Darwin's View: ○ Congenitally blind individuals express emotions similarly to sighted people, despite not having learned these expressions through imitation (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1970; Galati et al., 1997; Goodenough, 1932). ○ Study on Paralympic athletes who are congenitally blind compared to sighted Olympic athletes showed both groups exhibited appropriate emotional expressions in response to winning and losing (Matsumoto & Willingham, 2009; Tracy & Matsumoto, 2008). Cross-Cultural Evidence of Emotion Interpretation Paul Ekman's Studies: ○ Conducted cross-cultural comparisons showing pictures of emotional expressions to individuals from various cultural groups.  ○ Results indicate a significant agreement across cultures about the meanings of specific facial poses for certain emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, disgust, anger) (Ekman, 1994; Ekman & Friesen, 1969, 1971). Importance of Isolated Non-Western Cultures: ○ Ekman included members of non-Western cultures in his studies to address concerns about Western media's influence on emotional expression interpretation. ○ Validates the universality of emotional expression findings, irrespective of exposure to Western media. Recent Developments in Emotion Research Distinct Patterns of Emotion: ○ Research indicates there may be up to 28 identifiable emotions based on facial and bodily signs (A. S. Cowen & Keltner, 2019). ○ Contextual factors significantly influence perceptions of facial expressions (Aviezer et al., 2008). Research Methodology: ○ Studies have involved pasting posed emotional expressions onto bodies demonstrating different postures or behaviors to assess how context affects interpretation. Key Insights The meaning attached to facial expressions is influenced by: ○ The movements themselves. ○ Contextual factors, underscoring the complexity of emotional expression interpretation (L. F. Barrett, 2017). Summary The notes cover the fundamental aspects of emotions, including definitions, behavioral tendencies, evolutionary perspectives, cross-cultural interpretations, and recent research findings related to facial expressions and emotions. 9.15: Experiential Aspects of Emotion- Emotional Changes and Classification Emotions: ○ Involve changes in behavior and feelings. ○ Artistic expressions, such as poetry and literature, are filled with intense emotions like love, hatred, guilt, and sadness. Scientific Study of Emotions: ○ Begins with establishing a proper classification scheme for emotions. ○ There are over 550 terms in English for describing emotions (Averill, 1975). Clusters of Emotion Terms Research by Phillip Shaver and colleagues shows that people use emotion words in ways that reveal a limited number of "clusters":  ○ Clusters include: Words associated with love. Words associated with joy. Clusters describing anger, sadness, and fear. Classification Approaches 1. Discrete Emotions Approach: ○ Focuses on defining specific categories of emotions (R. S. Lazarus, 1991). ○ Distinctions made between emotions, such as: Anger vs. shame. Pride vs. amusement. ○ Treats each emotion as categorically distinct. 2. Dimensional Approach: ○ Uses dimensions instead of categories to analyze emotions. ○ Relies on two dimensions: Pleasantness: How pleasant or unpleasant the emotion feels. Activation: How activated (or aroused) the person feels during the emotion (L. F. Barrett, 1998). ○ Allows for a grid representation of various emotional combinations. Individual and Group Differences in Emotional Experience Assessing Individual Differences: ○ Examining how individuals use emotion terms to describe their feelings over various occasions. ○ Some individuals make specific distinctions among emotions based on pleasantness and activation. Alexithymia: ○ Defined as extreme difficulty in identifying and labeling one’s emotions (G. Taylor, 1984). Cultural Differences: ○ Questions about how emotions differ across cultures: Are the feelings of a person in London the same as those of someone in Paris or Germany? Different cultures may lack words for certain emotions (e.g., Ifalik people lack a word for “surprise”). Unique Cultural Emotions: ○ Certain cultures have unique words for emotions that may not exist in other languages: Fago: A complex mixture of compassion, love, and sadness in Ifalik culture. Amae: A desire to be dependent and cared for in Japanese culture. Schadenfreude: Pleasure derived from another's misfortune in German. Key Terminology Discrete Emotions Approach: ○ Focuses on specific emotions such as anger, fear, and pride. Dimensional Approach: ○ Focuses on dimensions such as pleasantness and activation. Alexithymia:  ○ An extreme difficulty in identifying and labeling one’s emotions. 9.16: What Makes People Happy? Happiness: An Universally Valued Emotional State Definition: ○ Happiness is often considered the "ultimate good," for which all other actions are undertaken (Aristotle). Variability in Happiness: ○ People exhibit varying levels of happiness; some are happier than others. ○ Implications of Happiness: Happier individuals tend to: Have more friends. Be more likely to marry. Be less likely to divorce. Hold better jobs. Earn more money. Live longer (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Happiness plays a causal role in these positive outcomes, not just a correlational one. Factors Influencing Happiness 1. Happiness Set Point: ○ The happiness set point is genetically determined (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996; Nes et al., 2006). ○ Reflected in stable personality traits: High levels of extraversion (upbeat, energetic approach to life). Low levels of neuroticism (low negative emotion, high emotional stability) (Weiss et al., 2008). ○ This factor accounts for about 50% of variation in happiness among individuals. 2. Life Circumstances: ○ Life circumstances account for only 10% of variations in happiness. ○ Adaptation: Refers to the ability to grow accustomed to stimuli, diminishing attention over time. Example: Studies comparing lottery winners and paralyzed individuals showed that both groups had similar contentment levels months after their respective events (Brickman et al., 1978), highlighting the human capacity for adaptation. ○ Individual differences exist in how people return to their happiness set point after life changes, such as marital status or disability (Lucas et al., 2003; Lucas, 2007). 3. Intentional Activities: ○ Account for the remaining 40% of the variation in happiness. ○ This factor is of significant interest because it is within our control (Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2007; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). ○ Activities that enhance happiness include: Cultivating feelings of gratitude (recognizing valuable contributions from others; Emmons & Mishra, 2011).  Savoring positive experiences. Utilizing personal strengths. ○ However, there is a potential downside to pursuing happiness: Placing excessive value on happiness can lead to disappointment, which can reduce overall happiness (Mauss et al., 2011). Key Terminology Happiness Set Point: ○ The level of happiness characteristic of a given individual. Adaptation: ○ A phenomenon where an individual stops noticing a constant stimulus over time, leading to enhanced detection of changes in stimuli. 9.17: Physiological Aspects of Emotion- Emotions and Their Classification Definition of Emotion: ○ Emotions are the coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes that occur when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals. Behavioral Tendencies: ○ General patterns include: Approaching emotionally positive stimuli. Withdrawing from emotionally negative stimuli. ○ Specific behaviors include facial expressions like smiles, frowns, laughs, etc., which have significant communicative value. Evolutionary Perspective: ○ Charles Darwin (1872) posited that facial expressions are evolutionary remnants, signaling adaptive patterns for survival. Theories of Emotion 1. James-Lange Theory: ○ Proposes that different emotions correspond to distinct physiological responses. ○ Sequence: Stimulus → Specific physiological responses → Emotional experience. ○ Example: Seeing a snake causes physiological changes (e.g., racing heart) which are then interpreted as fear. 2. Cannon-Bard Theory: ○ Suggests that a stimulus triggers both physiological changes and emotional experience simultaneously. ○ Critique of James-Lange: Physiological responses are too similar across different emotions to account for distinct emotional experiences. 3. Schachter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory): ○ Claims emotion arises from interpreting bodily responses within a situational context. ○ Sequence:  Stimulus → General physiological response → Cognitive appraisal → Emotional experience. Factors Influencing Happiness Happiness Set Point: ○ A genetically influenced baseline level of happiness. ○ Reflects stable personality traits, such as extraversion and emotional stability. ○ Accounts for approximately 50% of the variation in happiness. Life Circumstances: ○ Only about 10% of happiness variation is attributed to circumstances. ○ Adaptation plays a role; individuals adjust to their circumstances over time, leading to similar happiness levels post significant life changes (e.g., winning the lottery, becoming disabled). Intentional Activities: ○ Account for 40% of happiness variation and are the most controllable factors. ○ Activities to increase happiness include: Cultivating gratitude. Savoring positive experiences. Engaging personal strengths. ○ Caution: Excessive focus on happiness can lead to disappointment. Physiological Responses in Emotion The Autonomic Nervous System: ○ Plays a crucial role in emotional response, involving: Sympathetic Nervous System (Fight or Flight): Increases bodily readiness (e.g., heart rate, pupil dilation). Parasympathetic Nervous System (Rest and Digest): Calms the body after a threat has passed. Current Perspectives in Emotion Research Affective Neuroscience: ○ Studies neural activation patterns associated with different emotional states. ○ Emotions arise from multiple interrelated circuits rather than a single pathway. Physiological Differentiation: ○ Recent studies indicate some differentiation in bodily responses among emotions, though these perceptions can sometimes be misleading. Key Terminology Alexithymia: ○ Extreme difficulty in identifying and labeling one's emotions. Adaptation: ○ A process whereby individuals cease to notice a constant stimulus, enhancing their detection of changes. Interactive Figures:  Figure 9.35: Illustrates the autonomic nervous system's response during heightened emotions. Figure 9.36: Compares three major theories of emotion (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer). 9.18: Functions of Emotions- Definition of Emotion Emotion: The coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes that occur when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals. Behavioral Aspects of Emotion General Behavioral Tendencies: ○ Approaching emotionally positive stimuli. ○ Withdrawing from emotionally negative stimuli. Specific Behavioral Tendencies: ○ Facial expressions such as smiles, frowns, laughs, and grimaces. Importance of Facial Expressions Facial expressions are critical for communication and have received particular attention in psychology. Evolutionary Perspective: Charles Darwin hypothesized that facial expressions are vestiges of ancestral behaviors that aided survival. Emotional Expressions Across Species Evidence shows that emotional expressions are part of our evolutionary heritage. Individuals who are congenitally blind express emotions similarly to sighted individuals. Theories of Emotion 1. James-Lange Theory: ○ Suggests that specific physiological responses lead to emotional experiences. ○ Example: Seeing a snake causes racing heart and sweating, leading to the experience of fear. 2. Cannon-Bard Theory: ○ Proposes that a stimulus triggers a physiological response and emotional experience simultaneously. ○ Example: Seeing a snake causes both physiological changes and the experience of fear at the same time. 3. Schachter-Singer Theory: ○ Argues that emotion arises from the interpretation of bodily responses in the context of situational cues. ○ The perception of physiological changes and the contextual understanding influence emotional experience. Factors Influencing Happiness Happiness Set Point: A genetically influenced baseline level of happiness that is relatively stable over time. Circumstances: Account for approximately 10% of variations in happiness; adaptation to circumstances plays a significant role. Intentional Activities: Activities we consciously engage in account for about 40% of the variation in happiness. These include: ○ Cultivating gratitude. ○ Savoring positive experiences. ○ Using personal strengths. Cognitive Functions of Emotions Affect-as-Information Perspective: ○ Suggests that emotions play a critical role in problem-solving and decision-making. ○ For example, feelings of sadness can lead to systematic and careful thinking, while happiness may broaden thinking and creativity. Effects of Fear on Cognition Fear directs attention to maximize motivation to avoid negative outcomes. Studies indicate that fear can distort perception, leading to heightened sensitivity to dangerous situations. Functions of Physiological Changes Physiological responses to emotion help prepare the body for action (e.g., fight or flight). Emotions facilitate memory consolidation of significant events, potentially enhancing survival. Additional Terms Empathy: The ability to accurately track what others are feeling, which is crucial in social interactions. Adaptation: A process whereby an individual stops noticing a constant stimulus, enhancing detection of changes.