Levels of Organization PDF

Levels of organization Vocabulary Organelle: complex, organized structures in the cytoplasm of a cell with unique characteristic shapes; “little organs” Cell: smallest living structures and serve as the basic units of structure and function in organ...

Levels of organization Vocabulary Organelle: complex, organized structures in the cytoplasm of a cell with unique characteristic shapes; “little organs” Cell: smallest living structures and serve as the basic units of structure and function in organisms Tissue: precise organizations of similar cells that perform specialized functions Organ: two or more or more tissue types that work together to perform specific, complex functions Organ system: consists of related organs that work together to coordinate activities and achieve a common function organism: highest level, all body systems — single living human The 11 (12?) (13?) organ systems and examples of organs in each system 1. Integumentary a. Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands 2. Skeletal a. Bones, cartilage, ligaments 3. Muscular a. Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, cardiac muscles 4. Nervous a. Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves 5. Endocrine a. Pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal glands 6. Cardiovascular a. Heart, blood vessels 7. Lymphatic a. Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus 8. Respiratory a. Lungs, trachea, bronchi 9. Digestive a. Stomach, intestines, liver 10. Urinary a. Kidneys, bladder 11. Reproductive a. Male b. Female 12. Sensory a. Vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch Define organ and organ system Organ: two or more or more tissue types that work together to perform specific, complex functions Organ system: consists of related organs that coordinate activities and achieve a common, general function Define homeostasis and give an example  Homeostasis: stabilizing processes in the human body which maintain various conditions within a permissible/functional range Example: human body temperature homeostasis is mediated by blood circulation in the integument Multiple Choice and Content Review All Questions and Answers (Ch. 1, pg. 21) 1. Cutting a midsaggital section through the body separates which parts of the body? a. Anterior and posterior portions b. Superior and inferior portions c. Proximal and distal portions d. Right and left halves 2. When you palpate your sternum and recognize that it overlies the heart, or you palpate your clavicle (collarbone) and realize that the brachial plexus (a collection of nerves) underlies it, you are practicing which of the following anatomical specialties? a. Microscopic anatomy b. Surface anatomy c. Pathologic anatomy d. Systemic anatomy 3. Which of the following regions corresponds to the forearm? a. Cervical b. Antebrachial c. Femoral d. Pes 4. What term describes the state of maintaining a constant internal environment in the body? a. Reproduction b. Homeostasis c. Responsiveness d. Growth 5. Which level of organization is composed of two or more tissue types that work together to perform a common function? a. Cellular b. Tissue c. Organ d. Organismal 6. Which body cavity is located inferior to the diaphragm and superior to the pelvic brim of the hip bones? a. Abdominal cavity b. Thoracic cavity c. Pleural cavity d. Pelvic cavity 7. What is the term used to refer to a body structure that is below, or at a lower level than, another structure? a. Ventral b. Medial c. Inferior d. Distal 8. Which organ system filters waste products from the blood and excretes those waste products through the urethra to the outside of the body? a. Cardiovascular b. Respiratory c. Lymphatic d. Urinary 9. Which region refers to the anterior portion of the knee? a. Patellar b. Popliteal c. Pes d. Inguinal 10. Which serous membrane covers the surface of the lung? a. Parietal pleura b. Visceral pleura c. Parietal peritoneum d. Visceral peritoneum 11. What are the differences between cytology and histology? a. Cytology is the study of the cells and histology is the study of the tissues. 12. Compare and contrast the fields of anatomy and physiology, and explain how the fields may differ in their description of the small intestine. a. Anatomy is the study of structure – describes the small intestine’s parts and its structure. b. Physiology is the study of the function of the body structures – explains how the small intestine functions such as breaking down food. 13. What are the basic steps involved in the scientific method, and how does a clinician utilize the scientific method when treating a patient? a. Gather information, ask about specific complaints and complete physical examination b. Uses information to form hypothesis (explanation for any specific symptoms they may be experiencing c. Tests hypothesis by ordering medical tests to evaluate results d. Gathers information on results and draws a conclusion to make a diagnosis e. Treats patients based on diagnosis and additional information when the response to the treatment is monitored. 14. What are the 11 organ systems in the human body? a. Integumentary, skeletal, muscle, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive. 15. Describe the body in the anatomic position. Why is the anatomic position used? a. Feet parallel and flat on the floor. The head is level and the eyes look forward toward the observer. Arms at the side of the body, palms facing forward, and thumb pointing away from the body. b. All observers have a common point of reference when describing and discussing its regions. 16. Compare and contrast the use of the terms medial and lateral with the terms proximal and distal. How do these terms differ? a. Medial = middle, lateral = away from middle b. Proximal = toward the body, distal = away from the body (appendages) 17. List the anatomic term that describes each of the following body regions: forearm, wrist, chest, armpit, thigh, and foot.  a. Forearm: antebrachial b. Wrist: carpal c. Chest: pectoral d. Armpit: axillary e. Thigh: femoral f. Foot: pes 18. What are the two body cavities within the posterior aspect, and what does each cavity contain? a. Cranial cavity: brain b. Vertebrae cavity: spinal cord 19. Describe the structure and the function of serous membranes in the body. a. Visceral membrane = closest to organ b. Parietal membrane = farthest to organ c. Functions to friction control, protect, and support organs 20. List the 4 abdominal quadrants and the 9 abdominal regions. Then list which abdominal regions are in which quadrant (note that some regions may be in more than one quadrant). a. Right hypochondriac Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region region (RUQ) (RUQ/LUQ) (LUQ) Right lumbar region Umbilical region Left lumbar region (RUQ/RLQ) (RUQ/RLQ/LUQ/LLQ) (LUQ/LLQ) Right iliac region (RLQ) Hypogastric region Left iliac region (LLQ) (RLQ/LLQ) b. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) Embryology Vocabulary Gametes: sex cells with the haploid number (23) of chromosomes Fertilization: the process whereby a sperm penetrates a secondary oocyte (a cell in an ovary which may undergo meiotic division–meiosis II–to form an ovum) and a series of events occur to form a new cell containing genetic material derived from both parents – egg and sperm Oviduct, fallopian tube, and uterine tube: a tube to transport the egg from the ovary to the uterus where fertilization occurs Zygote: single cell produced by fertilization – developmental stage which implants in the uterus Meiosis: sex-cell division that produces gametes - 2 stage chromosomes number by half producing 4 Morula: 16-cell stage that has indeterminate cells Blastocyst: multicellular structure, hollow balls of cells stage Gastrulation: blastocyst cells – formation of the three primary germ layers, the basic cellular structures from which all body tissues develop Neurulation: Folding of ectoderm produces the hollow dorsal nerve cord and nervous system “the process that forms the nervous system” Embryo: organism in the early stages of development; in humans, the embryonic stage extends from the third to the eighth week When the 3 germ layers are formed Fetus: the stage where external examination reveals male or female genitals Germ layer: the three primary germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm which are formed by a process called gastrulation Ectoderm: outermost of the three primary germ layers, cells remaining in the epiblast Form nervous system tissue (neurulation) + epidermis of the skin & epidermal derivatives such as hair and nails (epithelial tissue) Endoderm: innermost layer when embryo undergoes transverse folding Linings of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts Forms thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, and portions of the palatine tonsils, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas Mesoderm: forms the notochord, cylindrical mass of mesoderm, which serves as the basis for the central body axis and axial skeleton (connective tissues –bone, cartilage, & dermis), most muscle. Paraxial mesoderm – connective intermediate mesoderm – urinary system and reproductive system lateral plate mesoderm (gives rise to cardiovascular system) Head mesenchyme – forms connective tissue & muscle tissue of the face Embryonic stem cells: cells that can differentiate into varying tissues and form organs They are used in the treatment of several diseases in research Different stages of stem cells can be collected Indeterminate (uncommitted) cells: Determinate (committed) cells: Where does fertilization usually take place? Fertilization usually takes place in the oviducts/fallopian tubes/uterine tubes What is the chromosome # for human body cells and gametes? Human body cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) Gametes have 23 chromosomes (haploid number) How do the three germ layers form and what tissues does each give rise to? (Example: brain comes from ectoderm) Form during early stages of embryonic development through a process called gastrulation Ectoderm – epidermis of skin & nervous system Mesoderm – internal organs, muscle, and bone Endoderm – lining of organs and many glands Do eggs and sperm arise by mitosis or meiosis? Why? Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half with haploid chromosomes (23), when eggs and sperm combine during fertilization, it restores to 46 chromosomes as a zygote. What are “embryonic” stem cells and why are they important and controversial? Stem cells are cells that can differentiate into varying tissues and form organs. Importance is to be used in the treatment of several diseases and in research. The controversy is that it is “embryo destruction,” after gastrulation, the cells are more limited in their developmental potential. Multiple Choice  1. During which period of development does organogenesis begin? a. Cleavage b. Embryonic period c. Pre-embryonic period d. Fetal period 2. Which stage of development is part of embryogenesis? a. Fertilization b. Gastrulation c. Fetal period d. Gametogenesis 3. When does capacitation occur? a. When sperm move through the uterine tubes b. When sperm are mixed with secretions from the testes c. When sperm are deposited within the vagina d. When sperm are traveling through the penis 4. What term is used to describe the beginning of the formation of the brain and spinal cord? a. Cephalocaudal folding b. organogenesis c. Neurulation d. Gastrulation Content Review 1. Compare and contrast meiosis and mitosis with respect to cell type, number of cells produced, and number of chromosomes in the daughter cells. Meiosis Mitosis Cell Type Diploid parent cell Somatic cell Number of cells 4 daughter cells (gametes) 2 daughter cells Number of chromosomes 23 chromosomes 48 chromosomes 2. Describe the process of gastrulation and the formation of the primary germ layers. a. Begins with formation of the primitive streak, a thin depression on the surface of the epiblast b. The cephalic (head) end of the streak, known as the primitive node, consists of a slightly elevated area surrounding a small primitive pit c. Cells detach from the epiblast layer and migrate through the primitive streak between the epiblast, and hypoblast layers. This inward movement of cells is known as invagination. d. The layer of cells that form between these two layers become the primary gern layer known as mesoderm. e. Other migrating cells eventually displace the hypoblast and form the endoderm. f. Cells remaining in the epiblast then form the ectoderm g. Thus the epiblast, through the process of gastrulation is the source of the primary germ layers h. The germ layers give rise to body tissues and organs  3. Describe the general differences between the embryonic period and the fetal period. a. Pre-embryonic period: human development stage when fertilization forms a zygote, zygote goes under meiosis cell division then mitosis, i. fertilization, zygote, cleavage, morula, blastocyst, implantation b. Embryonic period: where basic structures are formed, main organs are established, and major features of the body form are recognizable i. W3 Primitive streak appears, gastrulation occurs, neurulation begins ii. W4 cephalocaudal and lateral folding produce a cylindrical embryo, basic human body plan is established, organogenesis begins, limb buds appear iii. W5-6 Head enlarges, eyes/ears/nose appear, major organ systems are formed by the end of the week 8 (although some not be fully functional yet) c. Fetal period: beginning of third month of development – maturation of tissues and organs and rapid growth i. W9-12 Primary ossification centers appears in most bones, external reproduction organs begin differentiation, coordination between nerves and muscles for movement of limbs occurs, brain enlarges ii. W13-16 Body grows rapidly, ossification in the skeleton continue to enlarge iii. W17-20 Muscle movement become stronger and more frequent, lanugo covers skin, vernix caseosa covers skin, limbs near final proportions, brain and skull continue to enlarge, external reproductive organs may be distinguished on the ultrasound iv. W21-38 Body gains major amount of weight, subcutaneous fat is deposited, eyebrows & lashes appear, eyelids open Scientific Method Vocabulary Scientific hypothesis: an educated guess based upon previous observation which is testable using the scientific method. A hypothesis is also falsifiable. Scientific theory: a conclusion supported by all the available scientific evidence, explains natural phenomena, and has predictive value Scientific law: description of processes with repeatable, predictable outcomes with no known exceptions Scientific “fact”: an observation or statement that is accepted as true based on evidence – subject to change Probability: most likely to occur, statistically Possibility: refers to whether an event can happen regardless probability Correlation: a relationship or association between two variables Causation: one event is the reason for the second event occurring Coincidence: 2 or more UNRELATED events which occur at roughly the same time Scientific Method: a systematic approach to research science ○ Observation ○ Question ○ Hypothesis ○ Experiment ○ Results ○ Conclusion What is science? A method of answering questions using observation, evidence, and experimentation. The scientific method. Who is William Harvey and what did he show? Show the circulation of blood by observing the heart in a living creature and saw it as a muscular pump By measuring the volume of its ventricles and calculating the number of beats, he concluded that the blood must circulate, even though he didn’t know how it got from the arteries to the veins Be able to outline the scientific method and apply an example showing how science works 1. Observation 2. Question 3. Hypothesis 4. Experiment 5. Results 6. Conclusion Cells (See Lab Objectives #2) Vocabulary Cytology: study of cells Plasma membrane: the thin outer border of the cell that determines what substances can enter or exit the cell Phospholipids: plasma membrane lipids, compounds that are water soluble and water insoluble Balloon (polar “charged” & hydro-philic ‘water-loving”) with two tails (uncharged “nonpolar” & hydrophobic “water-hating) – forms parallel sheets Makes phospholipid bilayer, the basic structure of the plasma membrane Hydrophilic: water-loving or attracted to water Hydrophobic: water-hating or repelled by water Fluid mosaic: the plasma membrane phospholipid bilayer Selectively permeable: the cell membrane is selectively permeable which allows the entrance or exit of substances (gases, nutrients and wastes) to be regulated or restricted Organelle: little organs of cells that have specific roles in growth, repair, and cellular maintenance. Two types: membrane-bound & non-membrane-bound Chromatin: genetic material of the nucleus Vesicles: closed cellular structure in the cytoplasm surrounded by a single membrane Peroxisomes: membrane-enclosed sacs that uses oxygen to detoxify specific harmful substances produced by or taken in cell ATP: adenosine triphosphate, the energy currency of the cell – cell energy Microvilli: numerous thin membrane folds projecting from the free cell surface to increase membrane surface area for absorption and/or secretion Cilia: hair-like structures – short membrane attached projections containing microtubules that move fluid, mucus, and materials over the cell surface Passive diffusion: passive movement that is simple movement from high to low concentration Osmosis: passive movement that is movement of H20 from high to low concentration – a special type of simple diffusion in which water diffuses from one side of the selectively permeable membrane to the other Facilitated diffusion: passive movement that specific molecules attach to proteins channels that allow their specific diffusion – requires the participation Active transport: movement of a substance across a plasma membrane against a concentration gradient, so materials must be moved from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration Be able to diagram, label, and describe a typical cell membrane. See Lab 2 Objectives What are the functions of the cell membrane and the mitochondria? Mitochondria have two membranes Smooth outer membrane Folded inner membrane Mitochondria have their own DNA and can reproduce Mitochondria functions as the cell’s “powerhouse” converting food materials into molecules of ATP. ATP is the molecule that supplies energy directly to a cell What are the various ways that molecules move through the cell membrane? What are the functions of the mitochondria? To convert energy rich molecules into ATP (energy/currency of cells) For metabolism or cell respiration Chapter 2 review, p. 51 Multiple Choice 1. What is the best way to visualize microtubules within a nerve cell? a. Light microscope b. Telescope c. Transmission electron microscope d. Scanning electron microscope 2. How does facilitated diffusion differ from active transport? a. Facilitated diffusion expends ATP. b. Facilitated diffusion moves molecules from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. c. Facilitated diffusion does not require a carrier protein for transport. d. Facilitated diffusion moves molecules in vesicles across a semipermeable membrane. 3. Which structure increases the outer surface area of the plasma to increase absorption? a. Centrioles b. Cilia c. Microvilli d. Flagella 4. Which statement describes the major functions of the Golgi apparatus? a. The Golgi apparatus controls diffusion and osmosis. b. The Golgi apparatus detoxifies substances and removes waste products. c. The Golgi apparatus synthesizes new proteins for the cytoplasm. d. The Golgi apparatus packages, sorts, and modifies new molecules. 5. Interphase of the cell cycle is divided into which of the following parts? a. Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. b. G1, S, and G2 c. Mitosis and cytokinesis  d. S and mitosis 6. Which organelle produces most of the ATP for the cell? a. Mitochondrion b. Endoplasmic reticulum c. Lysosome d. Golgi apparatus 7. During which phase of mitosis do the sister chromatids begin to be pulled apart to opposite sell poles? a. Prophase b. Metaphase c. Anaphase d. Telophase Content Review 1. Describe the three main components common to all cells, and briefly discuss the composition of each region. Plasma membrane: cell barrier that limits what enters and exits Cytoplasm: general cell content between cell membrane and nucleus, filled with cytosol, inclusions, and organelles Nucleus: cell’s control center for protein synthesis & directs functional and structural characteristics of the cell 2. Describe the structure and the function of the plasma membrane. Forms the outer. Limiting barrier separating the internal contents of the cell from the external environment – receptors for communication, acts as physical barrier to enclose cell contents, regulates material movement into and out of the cell 3. What is meant by passive transport of materials into a cell? Describe the passive processes by which substances enter and leave the cell. - Passive transport moves substances across a plasma membrane without the expenditure of energy by the cell. - Materials move along a concentration gradient - CG: they flow from a region of higher concentration of the material to a region of lower concentration - No ATP needed. - Passive processes that move material across the plasma membrane: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis Simple diffusion ○ Move down to their concentration gradient (High to low concentration) Facilitated diffusion ○ Requires the participation of transport proteins that help specific substances move across the plasma membrane Osmosis ○ Simple diffusion in which water diffuses from one side of the selectively permeable membrane to the other ○ Water from high to low concentration. Toward the side of higher solute concentration 4. Discuss the two categories of organelles and the main differences between these groups.  a. Membrane bound organelles are surrounded by membrane i. ER (smooth/rough), golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria b. Organelles that are not surrounded by a membrane but are in contact with the cytosol i. Ribsomes, cytoskeleton–centresome/centrioles, cilia and flagella, microvilli 5. Compare and contrast the structure and function of the smooth ER and rough ER. Rough ER ○ Parallel membranes with spaces of cisternae and ribsomes attached ○ Assembly line for protein synthesis for secretion, incorporation into the plasma membrane, and as enzymes within lysosomes Smooth ER ○ Interconnected branches of tubules ○ Synthesis, transport, and storage of lipids ○ Metabolism of carbohydrates ○ Detoxifies drugs, alcohol, and poisons ○ Stores Ca++ = calcium 6. What is interphase? What role does it serve in the cell cycle? Interphase is G1 Phase (growth and preparation for DNA replication, S Phase (DNA Replication/ Synthesis Phase), and G2 Phase (second growth phase or preparation for cell division of DNA) 7. Identify the phases of mitosis, and briefly discuss the events that occur during each phase. See Lab 2 Objectives Mitosis Vocabulary Chromatid: one of the two strands of a chromosome joined by a centromere Centromere: the nonstaining constriction of a chromosome pairs during cell division Mitosis: IPMAT (see lab objectives), chromatid, centromere What happens in each phase of the cell cycle? See Lab 2 Objectives How many chromosomes are in body cells? How many in gametes? Human body cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) Gametes have 23 chromosomes (haploid number) What kind of cell division gives rise to gametes (sex cells)? Meiosis Histology Vocabulary Collagen: protein fiber that is most common, thick, and strong Elastic fibers: protein fiber that is fairly rare, thin, and can stretch & recoil Reticular fibers: like collagen but more random in organization Neuron v. Neuroglia: Neuron tissues: conductive cell that makes nerve impulses Neuroglia tissues: supports neuron’s health and its functions What are the four basic tissue types and what is the general function of each. 1. Epithelial tissue: covers and lines structures 2. Connective tissue: connects and fills space 3. Muscular tissue: produces movement 4. Nervous: communicates from one point of the body to another Be able to identify all the tissues from slide show in lab. See Lab Objectives Three main kinds of blood cells. What general tissue type is blood? 1. Erythrocytes: red blood cells 2. Leukocytes: white blood cells 3. Thrombocytes: platelets – cell fragments ** CONNECTIVE TISSUE ** What tissue lines the trachea? Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Be able to diagram and label the parts of an osteon. Multiple Choice 1. The tissue that is responsible for control and internal communication in the body consists of which type of cells? a. Chondrocytes and osteocytes b. Erythrocytes and leukocytes c. Fibroblasts and mast cells d. Neurons and glial cells 2. Which of the following is a correct statement about epithelium? a. It protects against mechanical abrasion. b. The cells can stretch and relax c. Every cell is in contact with the basement membrane d. It is formed from multiple layers of epithelial cells. 3. Which epithelial tissue lines the trachea (air tube)? a. Simple columnar epithelium b. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium c. Simple squamous epithelium, d. stratified squamous epithelium 4. Which body membrane functions to prevent desiccation and provide surface lubrication? a. Cutaneous b. Mucous c. Serous d. synovial 5. Which connective tissue type provides an abundantly resilient and flexible form to the structures it supports? a. Elastic cartilage b. Areolar connective tissue c. Fibrocartilage d. Dense regular connective tissue 6. Which tissue contains many types of cells, collagen fibers, and elastic fibers, and a lot of ground substance? a. Areolar connective tissue b. Reticular connective tissue c. Blood d. Nervous tissue  7. What is the name for a change of cell size in a tissue? a. Atrophy b. Hyperplasia c. Hypertrophy d. Metaplasia 8. Which muscle type consists of long, cylindrical, striated cells with multiple nuclei located at the periphery of the cell? a. Smooth muscle b. Cardiac muscle c. Skeletal muscle d. Involuntary muscle Integumentary System Vocabulary Cutaneous: skin membrane = integumentary Homeostasis: stabilizing processes in the human body which maintain various conditions within a permissible/functional range Keratin: keratinocytes in the epidermis (stratum basale layer) that give skin its strength and water-resistant Melanin: melanocytes in the epidermis (stratum basale layer) that give skin its pigment color Carotene: yellow–orange pigment that is acquired from orange vegetables – in keratin or subcutaneous fat Merocrine: package secretions in structures called secretory vesicles and release their secretion by exocytosis. Cells remain intact and not damaged. ex. eccrine glands to denote a type of sweat gland that is not connected to a hair follicle Most common type of secretion: watery secretion Cell loses no structure (ex. Goblet cells, salivary glands, and sweat glands) Eccrine: sweat gland throughout the body, palms and soles, and produces watery sweat – merocrine type Apocrine: composed of cells that accumulate their secretory products within the apical portion of their cytoplasm. Ex. Mammary glands and ceruminous glands Base of the cell remains intact while the apical end pinches off with a small amount of cytoplasm (ex. Mammary glands, prostate glands, ceruminous glands) composing the complex secretion Holocrine: formed from cells that accumulate a product and then the entire cell disintegrates Cell produces secretion then dies, releasing the complex secretion Basal cells undergo mitosis to replace cells (ex. Sebaceous glands) Eccrine sweat gland: merocrine Apocrine sweat gland: merocrine Mammary gland: breasts – breast milk to nourish offspring9 ceruminous gland: Modified sweat gland in the ear canal that secretes earwax, cerumen, to trap dirt, small insects, and bacteria Sebum: sebaceous (oil gland) secretion, lubrication for hair and moisture for skin and inhibits bacterial growth Acne: plugged sebaceous ducts – hormones stimulate sebaceous gland secretion making the pores more prone to blockage Arrector pili muscle: hair muscle that causes hair to stand up or erect Parts of finger nail: eponychium (cuticle), hyponychium (below free edge), lunua, nail fold, nail groove, nail body, free edge, nail root, and nail bed (deeper living cell layers) What are the functions of the integumentary system? 1. Protection 2. Prevention of water loss and water gain 3. Temperature regulation 4. Metabolic regulation – vitamin D 5. Immune defense 6. Sensory reception 7. Secretion What are the various factors that determine skin color? 1. Melanin: yellow-brown to black pigment a. Produced, stored, and released by melanocytes (found in stratum basale) b. Melanin absorbs UV radiation c. Carotene: found in orange vegetables and is converted to vitamin A d. Dermal blood supply What are the various glands of skin, where are they located, what do they secrete and what method of secretion do they use? Sweat Glands (2) ○ Eccrine (Merocrine) Sweat Glands Found throughout the body with the highest amount on palms of hands & soles of feet Watery sweat Found only in primates ○ Apocrine Sweat Glands Larger, and less numerous Yellowish, thicker sweat begins production at puberty Associated with pubic hair Found only in axillae, groin, areolae (nipples) & around the anus Found in many mammals Possible pheromone production Sebaceous Glands ○ Sebum is oily secretion that provides lubrication for hair, moisture for skin and inhibits bacterial growth ○ When gland becomes infected by specific bacteria = Acne Ceruminous Glands ○ Modified sweat gland in the ear canal ○ Secretes ear wax = cerumen Traps dirt, small insects, and bacteria Mammary Glands ○ Modified “apocrine” sweat glands found in breasts ○ Secretion is true apocrine ○ The secretion is milk Multiple Choice  1. Which statement is true about sebaceous glands? a. They are located primarily in the axillary and pubic regions of the body b. They are located in the epidermis. c. They release their product by holocrine secretion d. The secretion is produced when a portion of the cytoplasm pinches off and becomes the secretion. 2. Which layer of the epidermis contains the cells that begin the process of keratinization? a. Stratum corneum b. Stratum basale c. Stratum lucidum d. Stratum granulosum 3. What epidermal cell type is located in the stratum lucidum layer of the epidermis? a. Melanocyte b. Keratinocyte c. Epidermal dendritic dell d. All of above 4. Which of the following is not a function of the integument? a. Acts as a physical barrier b. Stores calcium in the dermis c. Regulates temperature through vasoconstriction and vasodilation of dermal blood vessels d. Participates in immune defense 5. What layer is correctly matched with the tissue that forms it? a. Papillary layer of dermis; areolar connective tissue b. Subcutaneous layer; dense irregular connective tissue c. Reticular layer of dermis; stratified squamous epithelium d. Epidermis; dense irregular connective tissue 6. Which statement is true about melanin and melanocytes? a. Melanin is produced by cells that are located in the stratum spinosum b. Melanin is a pigment that accumulates inside keratinocytes c. Darker-skinned individuals have more melanocytes than lighter-skinned individuals d. Albinism is caused by a lack of melanocytes in the body Content Review 1. What effect does the protein keratin have on both the appearance and the function of the integument? a. Keratin gives skin its strength and makes the epidermis water resistant. They also replace dead keratinocytes 2. Why is the integument considered an organ? a. Consists of different tissue types that collectively perform specific activities 3. List the layers of the epidermis from deep to superficial and compare their structure. a. Stratum basale b. Stratum spinosum c. Stratum granulosum d. Stratum lucidum e. Stratum corneum 4. How do apocrine and merocrine sweat glands differ in structure and function? a. Apocrine  i. Larger, and less numerous ii. Yellowish, thicker sweat begins production at puberty iii. Associated with pubic hair iv. Found only in axillae, groin, areolae (nipples) & around the anus v. Found in many mammals vi. Possible pheromone production b. Merocrine i. Found throughout the body with the highest amount on palms of hands & soles of feet ii. Watery sweat iii. Found only in primates 5. Describe how vasoconstriction and vasodilation of dermal blood vessels in the dermis can regulate body temperature. Osteology Vocabulary Trabeculae: spongy bone forms an open lattice of narrow plates of bone, network of struts - Significantly decrease the weight while maintaining strength Mesenchyme: embryonic connective tissue – star shaped stem cells that give rise to all connective tissue Osteoprogenitor: bone stem cells derived from mesenchyme – divides & differentiates into osteoblasts, differentiate during bone formation and after bone fracture – Produces osteoblasts Fibroblast: connective tissue fiber-building cells and ground substance components of the extracellular matrix Produce all connective tissue fibers Collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers Chondroblast: cells that produce the matrix of cartilage - Chondrocytes: encased chondroblasts Osteoblast: bone-forming cell (blast = build) – secretes osteoid, organic bone matrix Osteocyte: “encased” osteoblast – mature bone cells in lacunae (cyte = cell) Osteoclast: large cell type that functions in the absorption and removal of bone connective tissue (clast = broken) Bone destroying cells Giant, multinucleate (fused bone marrow stem cells) Contain lysosomes Secretes HCl to dissolve bone matrix (osteolysis) Frees Ca++ into the blood Sesamoid bone: small, round, and flat bones that form within tendons. Highly variable from individual to individual except for the patella Intramembranous ossification: bone growth within a membrane Ossification centers form within thickened regions of mesenchyme, beginning in the eighth week of development Osteoid undergoes calcification Woven bone and its periosteum form Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, as compact bone and spongy bone form Endochondral ossification: begins with hyaline cartilage model and produces most of the other bones of the skeleton, including upper and lower limbs, the pelvis, vertebrae, and ends of clavicle Fetal hyaline cartilage model develops Cartilage calcifies and a periosteal bone Calcitonin: promotes calcium deposition in bone and inhibits osteoclast activity Parathyroid hormone: increases blood calcium levels by encouraging bone resorption by osteoclasts Human growth hormone: stimulates liver to produce the hormone insulin-like growth factor (somatomedin), which causes cartilage proliferation at epiphyseal plate and resulting bone elongation; too little growth hormone results in short stature in the child Thyroxine: maintain epiphyseal cartilages until growth is done Estrogen: female sex hormone that stimulate osteoblasts; promote epiphyseal plate growth and closure Testosterone: male sex hormone that stimulate osteoblasts; promote epiphyseal plate growth and closure Fractures (simple, compound, complete, incomplete, greenstick, comminuted, transverse, spiral) Ca3(PO4)2: Calcium Phosphate, inorganic salt. Plates lie alongside the collagen fibers. It is the hardest matrix material (tooth enamel) Appositional bone growth: its growth in diameter or thickness Osteoporosis: porous bones, a disease that results in decreased bone mass and microarchitectural changes that lead to weakened bones prone to fracture Fontanelles: soft bones for fetuses What are the functions of the skeletal system? Support and lever action (for movement) Protects skull and ribs Blood cell production – red blood cells & white blood cells Stores Calcium, Ca++ What are the indications that bone is alive? Bone is dynamic ○ Grows, repairs, thickens, and atrophies Living cells must have O2, nutrients, communication, etc Be able to diagram and label a typical long bone. See Lab 3 Objectives Compare and contrast cartilage and bone. Cartilage– chondrocytes and collagen fibers What are the types of bone (long, flat, irregular, sesamoid)? Long ○ Greater length ○ Elongated, cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) ○ Common bone ○ Upper limb – humerus, ulna, radius. metacarpals, and phalanges ○ Lower limb – femur, tibia, fibula, phalanges Flat ○ Two parallel plates of compact bone ○ A thin layer of spongy bone is sandwiched in between them Sesamoid ○ Tiny, seed like. Sesame like. Carpals, tarsals, and patellar  Irregular ○ Elaborate, complex shape and does not fit in any categories ○ Compact bone covering internal spongy bone ○ Vertebrae, hip bones, several bones in the skull–ethmoid & sphenoid Diagram & describe four stages of healing a bone fracture. 1. Hematoma: extensive bleeding after a fracture (large clot forms) 2. Fibrocartilage callus & spongy bone: internal callus of spongy bone, external callus of fibrocartilage stabilizes fracture 3. Bony callus: the cartilage callus has been replaced by a spongy bone callus, which is noticeably bigger than the original bone 4. Remodeling: bone remodeling (osteoclasts) will eventually reshape the bone What are the types of bone fractures? 1. Simple (closed) 2. Compound (open 3. Complete 4. Incomplete 5. Greenstick (type of incomplete) 6. Comminuted 7. Transverse 8. Spiral Diagram & describe how bone grows in length and circumference. Diagram & describe intramembranous bone formation. 1. Mesenchyme cell clusters become osteoprogenitor cells that become osteoblasts. Osteoblasts produce osteoid. Osteoid begins to mineralize as the ossificaton center. 2. Bony spicules (trabeculae) begin to radiate out from ossification center. Any trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes; blood vessels branch and grow 3. Over time, this bone assumes the structure spongy bone with blood vessels trapped in trabeculae 4. Bone remodeling results in two layuers of compact bone with spongy bone and small marrow cavities in between Diagram & describe endochondral bone formation. 1. Mesenchyme cells differentiate into chrondroblasts, chrondroblasts lay down a hyaline cartilage 2. Cartilage calcifies and some cells in the perichondrium become osteoblasts – periosteal bone collar is formed 3. With fresh blood supply, more cells differentiate into osteoblasts – primary ossification center 4. Osteoblasts form sspongy bone first, osteoclasts digest spongy bone creating the medullary cavity – primary ossification center leaves mostly compact bone in the diaphysis 5. By birth, penetration of nutrient arteries into the epiphyseal areas result in secondary ossification with spongy bone 6. The remaining hyaline cartilage becomes a growth region called an epiphyseal plate 7. As humans approach the end of adolescence, an interaction of HGH, thyroid hormones and sex hormones trigger the “closure” or calcification of epiphyseal plates into bony remnants called epiphyseal plates into bony remnants called epiphyseal laines 8. In mature bones with epiphyseal lines: the only remaining hyaline cartilage is the articular cartilage What process produces most bones? Endochondral Ossification: hyaline cartilage skeleton model is make first then converted into bone  - Also called indirect, intracartilaginoaujs or cartilage replacement bone What process produces many of the bones of the skull? Intramembranous Ossification: dermal bones What are the various factors that affect osteoporosis Articulations Vocabulary Synarthrosis: immovable joint (gomphosis/suture: fiber, synchondrosis: hyaline cartilage) Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable joint (syndesmosis: connective tissue fibers between bones, Symphysis: fibrocartilage between bones Diarthrosis: freely movable joint (uniaxial–plane, hinge, pivot; biaxial–condylar, saddle; multiaxial–ball-and-socket joint) Fibrous: joint occurs where bones are held together by dense regular (fibrous) connective tissue Cartilaginous: joint occurs where bones are joined by cartilage Gomphosis: fibrous periodontal ligaments hold tooth to jaw Bony fusion (ostosis): Sutures: fibrous dense regular connective tissue connects skull bones Synovial joint: has a fluid-filled joint cavity that separates the cartilage-covered articulating surfaces of the bones Synovial fluid: composed of secretions from synovial membrane cells and a filtrate from blood plasma that functions to lubricate, chondrocytes, and as a shock absorber Bursa: a fibrous, saclike that contains synovial fluid and is lined with synovial membrane Small pockets of synovial membrane, filled with synovial fluid, eases motion, & cushions friction Tendon sheaths: elongated bursa that wraps around tendons where there may be excessive friction. In confined spaces like wrist and ankle Tubular bursae that surround tendons with bony friction Meniscus: crescent-shaped fibrocartilage found in certain joints – lateral and medial meniscus stabilize the joint to act as cushions and change shape to conform to the articulating surfaces Rotator cuff injury: result of trauma or disease to any portion of the rotator cuff muscle or tendon. Tearing of muscle fibers or rupture of tendon attachments – injury to the supraspinatus muscle Shoulder– greatest range of movement & Muscles (with tendons) hold head of humerus in glenoid fossa Knee injuries: Meniscus tear, ACL tear, medial collateral tear, and patellar ligament tear Sprain: stretching or tearing of ligaments without fracture or dislocation of the joint Arthritis: a disease that involves damage to articular cartilage of jointss that presents swelling of the joint, pair and stiffness Tennis elbow: inflammation of tendon of the extensor muscles over the lateral epicondyle Ligaments: bone to bone, band or sheet of dense regular fibrous tissue that connects bones, cartilage or structures Carpal tunnel syndrome: tendon sheath inflamed in the carpal tunnel Diagram and describe the anatomy of a typical synovial joint. What is a rotator cuff injury? Result of trauma or disease to any portion of the rotator cuff muscle or tendon. Tearing of muscle fibers or rupture of tendon attachments – injury to the supraspinatus muscle  Shoulder– greatest range of movement & Muscles (with tendons) hold head of humerus in glenoid fossa What is the glenohumeral joint and what is special about it? Describe the knee joint, its various ligaments and its cartilages. Diagram the knee joint and discuss injuries related to it. Meniscus tear ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) tear: runs from the posterior femur to the anterior side of the tibia Medial colateral tear Patellar ligament tear Diagram the shoulder joint and discuss injuries related to it and the elbow. What is the fontanelle and what are its functions? Fontanelles are soft spots on a baby’s skull allow for birth and skull growth