Research Methods and Statistics PDF

Research Methods and Statistics Basic Assumption Behind Psychological Research: Psychological research assumes that behavior is predictable and can be studied scientifically. Theory vs. Hypothesis: A theory is a broad explanation of phenomena; a hypothesis is a specific, testa...

Research Methods and Statistics Basic Assumption Behind Psychological Research: Psychological research assumes that behavior is predictable and can be studied scientifically. Theory vs. Hypothesis: A theory is a broad explanation of phenomena; a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory. Falsifiable: A hypothesis is falsifiable if it can be proven wrong through experimentation or observation. Publication Process: Research must undergo peer review, where experts evaluate the validity, significance, and originality before it is published in a journal. Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention. Case Study: An in-depth analysis of an individual or group, often used to explore complex issues. Survey: A method of gathering data by asking participants questions to collect self-reported information. Experiment: A controlled study to test a hypothesis by manipulating one variable to observe the effect on another. ○ Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher. ○ Dependent Variable: The variable measured in response to the independent variable. Experiment Requirements: To be an experiment, it must involve manipulation of an independent variable and random assignment of participants. ○ Manipulating a Variable: Intentionally changing one variable to observe effects on another. ○ Random Assignment: Randomly placing participants into different groups to eliminate bias. Confound: An uncontrolled variable that may affect the outcome of an experiment. Experimenter Bias: When a researcher's expectations influence the results of the study. Method for Causality: Only experiments can determine causality due to controlled conditions. Descriptive Statistics: Measure central tendency (mean, median, mode), variability (range, standard deviation), and frequency. ○ Correlation (r): Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. Range of r: From -1 to +1. Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together; Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases; Zero Correlation: No relationship. Reasons Correlation Can't Determine Causation: Correlation does not imply causation; other factors may influence the relationship. Inferential Statistics: Assess whether findings can be generalized to a larger population.  ○ p Value: Indicates the probability of results occurring by chance. A small p value (typically <.05) suggests significance. Ethical Considerations: Informed consent, confidentiality, minimizing harm, and debriefing participants. Sensation and Perception Sensation vs. Perception: Sensation refers to the process of receiving stimuli; perception is the interpretation of those stimuli. ○ Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected. ○ Just Noticeable Difference: The smallest change in stimulus intensity that can be detected, related to stimulus strength (Weber's Law). Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time. Contrast Effects: The enhancement or diminishment of perception based on comparison with other stimuli. Stimulus for Vision: Light waves; different animals have varied ranges of visible wavelengths due to evolutionary adaptations. Rods and Cones: Rods detect low light (night vision); cones detect color and detail (daylight vision). ○ Blind Spot: The area in the retina without photoreceptors; usually unnoticed due to visual processing. Feature Detectors: Neurons that respond to specific features (e.g., edges, movement). Humans and monkeys have feature detectors for faces. Limited Attention and Perceptual Set: Expectations and prior experiences shape perception; can lead to misinterpretations. Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing: Top-down uses prior knowledge to interpret stimuli; bottom-up builds perception from sensory input. ○ Limitations of Bottom-Up: Cannot explain how expectations influence perception. Adaptation to Light Changes: The eye adapts through pupil dilation and photoreceptor adjustments; dark adaptation is faster than light adaptation. Binocular Cues: ○ Retinal Disparity: Slight difference in images between the two eyes. ○ Convergence: Degree to which eyes turn inward to focus on an object. Relative Motion/Motion Parallax: Objects closer appear to move faster than distant objects when we move. Accommodation: The lens adjusts its shape to focus on objects at varying distances, aiding depth perception. Pictorial Monocular Cues: ○ Height in Plane: Objects higher in the visual field appear further away. ○ Overlap, Linear Perspective, Texture Gradient, Aerial Perspective, Size Cues are also used to convey depth.  Optical Illusions: Generally work due to mismatches between perception and reality, exploiting perceptual shortcuts. Perceptual Constancy: The perception of objects as constant despite changes in sensory input. Stimulus for Hearing: Sound waves; the ear structures (cochlea) pick up vibrations. Cues to Locate Sound: Differences in timing and intensity of sound reaching each ear help locate direction. Stimulus for Taste: Chemicals in food; taste buds detect these stimuli. ○ Taste Preference: Influenced by genetics, culture, and past experiences. Stimulus for Smell: Odor molecules; olfactory receptors detect these stimuli. ○ Plugging Noses: Reduces sensory input, affecting taste perception. McGurk Effect: Demonstrates interaction between visual and auditory perception, leading to different interpretations based on visual cues. Stimulus for Touch: Pressure, temperature, and pain detected by mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and nociceptors. Pain Perception: Influenced by physical damage, psychological state, and context. Brain Regions for Senses: ○ Vision: Occipital lobe ○ Hearing: Temporal lobe ○ Taste: Insula and frontal operculum ○ Smell: Olfactory bulb ○ Touch: Somatosensory cortex Kinesthetic and Vestibular Systems: Kinesthetic (body position) located in muscles and joints; vestibular (balance) located in the inner ear. Cognition Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution. ○ Advantages: Accurate and thorough; ○ Disadvantages: Time-consuming. Heuristic: A mental shortcut for problem-solving. ○ Advantages: Fast and efficient; ○ Disadvantages: Can lead to errors. Mental Set: A tendency to approach problems in a specific way, often based on past experiences. Insight: A sudden realization of a problem's solution, often felt as a moment of clarity. Barriers to Problem Solving: Includes functional fixedness, mental sets, and confirmation bias, which can hinder creative thinking. Rationality: People are not completely rational; emotions and biases influence decisions. ○ Bounded Rationality: Decision-making is limited by information, cognitive limitations, and time constraints.  Heuristics: ○ Availability Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of events based on readily available memories. ○ Overconfidence Effect: Overestimating one's abilities or knowledge. ○ Spotlight Effect: Overestimating how much others notice our behaviors. ○ Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs. ○ Gambler’s Fallacy: Believing past events influence future probabilities in independent events. Framing Effects: How information is presented (gain vs. loss) influences decisions. Messages can also be framed in terms of social norms or emotional appeals. Belief Perseverance: Holding onto beliefs even when evidence contradicts them. Advantages of Heuristics: Provide quick solutions in familiar situations, but may fail in novel or complex scenarios. Measuring Intelligence Types of Questions on IQ Tests: Vocabulary, mathematical reasoning, spatial reasoning, and pattern recognition. Score Meaning: Scores reflect relative performance compared to a norm group, usually with a mean of 100. Intelligence Scope: IQ tests do not measure emotional intelligence, creativity, or practical skills. Nature vs. Nurture: Intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. IQ Predictions: IQ is correlated with academic achievement, job performance, and income levels. This condensed guide should help you prepare for your exam! Let me know if you need any further clarification or details on any specific topics.