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Questions and Answers
Which of the following cues is NOT used to convey depth?
Which of the following cues is NOT used to convey depth?
What primarily influences taste preference?
What primarily influences taste preference?
Which brain region is responsible for processing sound?
Which brain region is responsible for processing sound?
What defines bounded rationality in decision-making?
What defines bounded rationality in decision-making?
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What is the McGurk Effect an example of?
What is the McGurk Effect an example of?
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Which of the following is an advantage of using heuristics for problem-solving?
Which of the following is an advantage of using heuristics for problem-solving?
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Which factor does NOT influence pain perception?
Which factor does NOT influence pain perception?
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What is a disadvantage of using algorithms for problem-solving?
What is a disadvantage of using algorithms for problem-solving?
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What differentiates a hypothesis from a theory in psychological research?
What differentiates a hypothesis from a theory in psychological research?
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What is true about the peer review process in research publication?
What is true about the peer review process in research publication?
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Which research method involves observing subjects in their natural environment?
Which research method involves observing subjects in their natural environment?
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What is a controlled study designed to test a hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable called?
What is a controlled study designed to test a hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable called?
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What does the availability heuristic involve?
What does the availability heuristic involve?
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What does random assignment in an experiment help to eliminate?
What does random assignment in an experiment help to eliminate?
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Which of the following represents the correct range of a correlation coefficient?
Which of the following represents the correct range of a correlation coefficient?
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Which heuristic describes the tendency to believe that past events affect the probabilities of independent future events?
Which heuristic describes the tendency to believe that past events affect the probabilities of independent future events?
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Why can't correlation determine causation?
Why can't correlation determine causation?
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Which of the following statements about IQ tests is true?
Which of the following statements about IQ tests is true?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of a confound in an experiment?
Which of the following is a characteristic of a confound in an experiment?
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What is the main characteristic of belief perseverance?
What is the main characteristic of belief perseverance?
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How does framing affect decision-making?
How does framing affect decision-making?
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What does a small p value (typically <.05) indicate in inferential statistics?
What does a small p value (typically <.05) indicate in inferential statistics?
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Which term describes the process of interpreting stimuli received from the environment?
Which term describes the process of interpreting stimuli received from the environment?
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What is the absolute threshold in sensory psychology?
What is the absolute threshold in sensory psychology?
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Which of the following describes sensory adaptation?
Which of the following describes sensory adaptation?
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What is meant by 'feature detectors' in the context of vision?
What is meant by 'feature detectors' in the context of vision?
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Which of the following binocular cues assists in depth perception?
Which of the following binocular cues assists in depth perception?
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How do top-down and bottom-up processing differ?
How do top-down and bottom-up processing differ?
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What is the function of the lens in vision?
What is the function of the lens in vision?
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Study Notes
Basic Assumptions of Psychological Research
- Behavior is predictable and can be studied scientifically
Theory vs. Hypothesis
- A theory is a broad explanation of phenomena
- A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory
Falsifiable Hypothesis
- Can be proven wrong through experimentation or observation
Publication Process
- Research must undergo peer review before publication in a journal
- Peer review involves experts evaluating the validity, significance, and originality of the research
Research Methods
- Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention
- Case Study: An in-depth analysis of an individual or group, often used to explore complex issues.
- Survey: A method of gathering data by asking participants questions to collect self-reported information
- Experiment: A controlled study to test a hypothesis by manipulating one variable to observe the effect on another
Experiment Components
- Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.
- Dependent Variable: The variable measured in response to the independent variable.
Experiment Requirements
- To be an experiment, it must involve:
- Manipulation of an independent variable
- Random assignment of participants
- Manipulating a Variable: Intentionally changing one variable to observe effects on another.
- Random Assignment: Randomly placing participants into different groups to eliminate bias.
Confound Variables
- An uncontrolled variable that may affect the outcome of an experiment.
Experimenter Bias
- When a researcher's expectations influence the results of the study
Determining Causality
- Only experiments can determine causality due to controlled conditions.
Descriptive Statistics
- Measures central tendency (mean, median, mode), variability (range, standard deviation), and frequency.
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Correlation (r): Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
- Range of r: From -1 to +1.
- Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.
- Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
- Zero Correlation: No relationship.
Reasons Correlation Cannot Determine Causation
- Correlation does not imply causation; other factors may influence the relationship.
Inferential Statistics
- Assess whether findings can be generalized to a larger population.
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p Value: Indicates the probability of results occurring by chance.
- A small p value (typically <.05) suggests significance.
Ethical Considerations in Research
- Informed consent
- Confidentiality
- Minimizing harm
- Debriefing participants
Sensation vs. Perception
- Sensation: The process of receiving stimuli.
- Perception: The interpretation of those stimuli.
Absolute Threshold
- The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected.
Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
- The smallest change in stimulus intensity that can be detected
- Related to stimulus strength (Weber's Law)
Sensory Adaptation
- Reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time
Contrast Effects
- The enhancement or diminishment of perception based on comparison with other stimuli.
Vision Stimulus
- Light waves; different animals have varied ranges of visible wavelengths due to evolutionary adaptations.
Rods and Cones
- Rods: Detect low light (night vision).
- Cones: Detect color and detail (daylight vision)
Blind Spot
- The area in the retina without photoreceptors; usually unnoticed due to visual processing.
Feature Detectors
- Neurons that respond to specific features (e.g., edges, movement).
- Humans and monkeys have feature detectors for faces.
Attention and Perception
- Limited Attention: Expectations and prior experiences shape perception
- Perceptual Set: Can lead to misinterpretations.
Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing
- Top-Down: Uses prior knowledge to interpret stimuli
-
Bottom-Up: Builds perception from sensory input.
- Limitations of Bottom-Up: Cannot explain how expectations influence perception.
Adaptation to Light Changes
- The eye adapts through pupil dilation and photoreceptor adjustments; dark adaptation is faster than light adaptation
Binocular Cues
- Retinal Disparity: Slight difference in images between the two eyes.
- Convergence: Degree to which eyes turn inward to focus on an object.
Relative Motion/Motion Parallax
- Objects closer appear to move faster than distant objects when we move.
Accommodation
- The lens adjusts its shape to focus on objects at varying distances, aiding depth perception.
Pictorial Monocular Cues
- Height in Plane: Objects higher in the visual field appear further away.
- Overlap, Linear Perspective, Texture Gradient, Aerial Perspective, Size Cues are also used to convey depth.
Optical Illusions
- Generally work due to mismatches between perception and reality, exploiting perceptual shortcuts.
Perceptual Constancy
- The perception of objects as constant despite changes in sensory input
Hearing Stimulus
- Sound waves; the ear structures (cochlea) pick up vibrations.
Cues to Locate Sound
- Differences in timing and intensity of sound reaching each ear help locate direction.
Taste Stimulus
- Chemicals in food; taste buds detect these stimuli.
- Taste Preference: Influenced by genetics, culture, and past experiences.
Smell Stimulus
- Odor molecules; olfactory receptors detect these stimuli.
- Plugging Noses: Reduces sensory input, affecting taste perception.
McGurk Effect
- Demonstrates interaction between visual and auditory perception, leading to different interpretations based on visual cues.
Touch Stimulus
- Pressure, temperature, and pain detected by mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and nociceptors.
Pain Perception
- Influenced by physical damage, psychological state, and context.
Brain Regions for Senses
- Vision: Occipital lobe
- Hearing: Temporal lobe
- Taste: Insula and frontal operculum
- Smell: Olfactory bulb
- Touch: Somatosensory cortex
Kinesthetic and Vestibular Systems
- Kinesthetic: (body position) located in muscles and joints.
- Vestibular: (balance) located in the inner ear.
Cognition
-
Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution.
- Advantages: Accurate and thorough.
- Disadvantages: Time-consuming.
-
Heuristic: A mental shortcut for problem-solving
- Advantages: Fast and efficient.
- Disadvantages: Can lead to errors.
Mental Set
- A tendency to approach problems in a specific way, often based on past experiences.
Insight
- A sudden realization of a problem's solution, often felt as a moment of clarity.
Barriers to Problem Solving
- Functional fixedness
- Mental sets
- Confirmation bias (hinders creative thinking)
Rationality
- People are not completely rational; emotions and biases influence decisions.
- Bounded Rationality: Decision-making is limited by information, cognitive limitations, and time constraints.
Heuristics
- Availability Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of events based on readily available memories.
- Overconfidence Effect: Overestimating one's abilities or knowledge.
- Spotlight Effect: Overestimating how much others notice our behaviors.
- Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs.
- Gambler’s Fallacy: Believing past events influence future probabilities in independent events.
Framing Effects
- How information is presented (gain vs.loss) influences decisions.
- Messages can also be framed in terms of social norms or emotional appeals.
Belief Perseverance
- Holding onto beliefs even when evidence contradicts them.
Heuristic Advantages and Disadvantages
- Advantages: Provide quick solutions in familiar situations, but may fail in novel or complex scenarios.
Measuring Intelligence
- IQ Test Questions: Vocabulary, mathematical reasoning, spatial reasoning, and pattern recognition
- Score Meaning: Scores reflect relative performance compared to a norm group, usually with a mean of 100.
- Intelligence Scope: IQ tests do not measure emotional intelligence, creativity, or practical skills.
Nature vs. Nurture (Intelligence)
- Intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
IQ Predictions
- IQ is correlated with academic achievement, job performance, and income levels.
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