HSC1010 Emotions, Stress & Health Part 1 Motivation & Emotion PDF

HSC1010 Emotions, Stress & Health Part 1: Motivation & Emotion Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Explain motivation and its different types Describe different theories o...

HSC1010 Emotions, Stress & Health Part 1: Motivation & Emotion Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Explain motivation and its different types Describe different theories of motivation Differentiate needs, drives and incentives Understand humanistic theories of motivation Explain the physiology and psychology of hunger Define emotion and distinguish it from mood and affect Understand role of the ANS, limbic system, prefrontal cortex and other brain areas in the experience of emotion Understand different theories of emotion Understanding Motivation Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theories of Motivation Motivation Motivation & emotions: underlying reasons of behaviour Motivation: process initiated by a physiological or psychological need/want that causes an individual to behave in a certain manner in order to achieve a specific goal or incentive Inferred from goal-directed behaviour (not observed) Two types of motivation: extrinsic motivation: performing a behaviour or engaging in an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment (e.g., studying to get a good grade) intrinsic motivation: performing a behaviour because it is personally rewarding (playing sport because you enjoy it) Theories of Motivation Instinct Theory Needs & Drives Drive Reduction Theory Psychological Needs Theories Arousal Theory Incentive Theory Humanistic Theory Instinct Theory Instincts: innate, inflexible, unlearned behaviours characteristic of a species (e.g., spiders spin webs) Instinct Theory: all organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help them survive Instincts drive all behaviours Early instinct theorists (James, McDougall), influenced by Darwin, tried to classify human behaviour according to instincts McDougall (1908): 18 instincts for humans List of supposed instincts grew to thousands (500 book review = 5759 instincts) Criticisms of Instinct Theory: only described but not explained human behaviours human behaviour is rarely inflexible most important human behaviour is learned Needs & Drives Need: condition of tension which stems from lacking essential biological or psychological requirement of an organism; lack of something desirable or useful Drive: state of readiness produced by a need that motivates us towards a goal (behaviour) Two types of drives: Primary drives: innate and physiological in nature (e.g., hunger, thirst, sexual desire) → drive-reduction theory Secondary drives: psychological in nature arising as a result of experience (i.e., not born with innate desire to become wealthy, instead acquire desire because we learn that money allows us to obtain things that satisfy primary needs) → incentive theory Needs & Drive Theories Drive-reduction theory (Hull, 1943): a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need and reduce the tension The physiological aim of drive-reduction is homeostasis: organism’s natural tendency to maintain a balance of constant internal state (regulation of body chemistry – e.g., blood- glucose) Psychological Needs Theories Two main theories emphasising the role of psychological needs for motivation (influenced by social-learning perspective): 1. McClelland (1961, 1987): Theory of Needs - 3 sets of acquired or learned needs Affiliation Achievement Power desire for friendly & close drive to excel, achieve a set need to make others behave interpersonal relationships of standards, strive to in a way they would not succeed otherwise behave 2. Dweck (1999): Self-Theory of Motivation: need for achievement linked to person’s view of self (fixed or changeable) & locus of control (LoC) Fixed Mindset Changeable mindset (External LoC) (Internal LoC) avoid Challenges embraces give up Obstacles fortitude no point Effort work hard deflect Criticism learns feel threatened Others success celebrates Arousal Theory Human beings are more than homeostatic systems Some motivated behaviours actually ↑ arousal (e.g., curiosity) Arousal Theory of motivation based on need for stimulation: motivated to act in ways to maintain a certain level of arousal (optimal level) in order to feel comfortable Link between physiological arousal and certain personality types sensation seekers need more arousal than the average person (more susceptible to boredom) is sensation-seeking innate or learned?  Arousal Theory Yerkes-Dodson law (1908): performance related to arousal Moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance, than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high Optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on the difficulty of the task Stress StressPerformance PerformanceConnection Connection Easy tasks require high-moderate level of arousal (green) Difficult tasks require low-moderate level of arousal (red) Incentive Theory Human beings are not only pushed by their needs to reduce drives (hunger) but also pulled by incentives Incentives: positive or negative stimuli that attract or deter action Incentive Theory: motivated to do things because of external rewards (e.g., go to work for monetary reward of being paid) Influenced by learning (behavioural) perspective When there is both a need and an incentive → strong drive For each motive, the question stands: How is it pushed by our inborn physiological needs and pulled by incentives in the environment? Humanistic Theories Two main humanistic theories of motivation: 1. Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow’s 1987) Primary needs must be met before higher needs can be reached Self-actualization: full potential achieved (seldom reached) Peak experiences: periods when self-actualization is temporarily achieved Cultural & socio-economic factors influence both order & importance of the stages  Humanistic Theories 2. Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000): 3 innate, universal psychological needs for a complete sense of self & healthy relationships Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Relatedness Extrinsic v Intrinsic Motivation self-initiation & mastery Feelings of money self-regulation purpose love closeness & of one’s points rewards passion belonging to behaviour social group fun prizes discipline belonging Competence learning praise punishment self-knowledge Ability to interact effectively Biological Influences of Motivation Physiology of Hunger Eating Issues Basic Human Motives Biological motives: for survival and wellbeing (e.g., hunger, sex, thirst) All organisms have a built-in regulatory system to maintain internal functions → homeostasis Social motives: learned through experience and interactions with others (e.g., power, achievement, love, affiliation) The Physiology of Hunger What is the bodily source of hunger? Stomach pangs indicate need to eat (Washburn & Cannon, 1929) Hunger exists in rats with removed stomachs, as well as in humans whose ulcerated or cancerous stomachs were removed The Physiology of Hunger Hunger does not come from stomach, but from body chemistry Body keeping tabs of its available resources to prevent energy deficits and maintain stable body weight Glucose: form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues; when glucose low → hunger Insulin & glucagon: hormones secreted by pancreas to control levels of fats, proteins & carbohydrates in bloodstream Insulin ↓ glucose levels → ↑ hunger glucagon ↑ glucose levels → ↓ hunger The Physiology of Hunger Hunger also comes from the brain, specifically hypothalamus Hormones travel from various organs of body to brain conveying messages that increase or decrease appetite Ghrelin (stomach): I’m hungry (surgery for obesity) Insulin (pancreas) ↑ hungry Leptin (fat cells) ↓ hunger PYY (digestible system): I’m not hungry Lateral Hypothalamus: brings on hunger (orexin hormone) Ventromedial Hypothalamus: suppresses hunger The Physiology of Hunger Weight set point: level of weight that body tries to maintain Basal metabolic rate (BMR): rate at which body burns energy when resting BMR = minimum amount of calories to sustain life BMR = Harris-Benedict formula based on weight, height, age, and gender Women: 655 + (9.6 × weight in kg) + (1.8 × height in cm) – (4.7 × age in years) Men: 66 + (13.7 × weight in kg) + (5 × height in cm) – (6.8 × age in years) Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White When the body falls below the set point, increased hunger and a lower BMR may act to restore the lost weight The Psychology of Hunger Social cues: conditioned to eat at certain times (breakfast, lunch dinner) or certain foods in particular places (popcorn at movies) Social pressures: presence of others can ↑ or ↓ one’s eating Stress/Boredom: comfort eating (typically ↑ fat / sugar foods) Cultural customs & ideal body weight: influence eating habits Environmental influences: abundance of cheap, ↑ calorie & fat fast food/processed food; ↑ consumption of soft drinks etc. Gender also influences eating norms and habits Eating Issues Obesity: body weight ≥ 20% over ideal body weight in relation to height Biological causes: genetics (heredity, hormones, metabolic deficits), slowing metabolism with age Environmental causes: abundance of unhealthy foods, lifestyle factors (longer working hours, reduced exercise) Obesity associated with lower psychological well-being and depression Eating Disorders: battle between body one has and body one wants. Most common: Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Binge-Eating Disorder Roles of Emotion Physiology of Emotion Emotional Expressions and Experiences Theories of Emotion Emotion Emotions: “feeling” aspect of consciousness, underlying behaviour, characterized by: physiological and automatic arousal (brain, body, face) neurological reactions towards (emotional) stimuli Feelings: more cognitive; conscious experience invoked by emotions and shaped by personal memories and beliefs. Mood: pervasive and sustained emotion that influences person’s perception of the world (e.g., anger, anxiety) Affect: observable behaviour representing the expression of an emotion inferred from body language & facial expressions may or may not be consistent with mood Physiology of Emotion Physiological arousal of emotion regulated by the autonomic nervous system (ANS), especially the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) The parasympathetic division calms down the body Physiology of Emotion Two emotional hubs in the brain Limbic System: the emotional core of the brain (where senses and awareness first processed in the brain), especially the amygdala Prefrontal Cortex: the center of higher cognitive and emotional functions (where rational, logical thinking can take place) Emotional impulses travel from limbic system → prefrontal cortex Physiology of Emotion Amygdala Associated with strong emotions, fear, anger & pleasure Studies of fear conditioning (LeDoux et al) Theory of Emotional Brain (LeDoux): 2 biological pathways 1. Short route: stimulus (sound/sight) → thalamus → amygdala Fast, “low road”, immediate reaction, subcortical, unconscious 2. Long route: stimulus (sound/sight) → thalamus → sensory cortex → hippocampus → amygdala Slower, more complex “high road”, cortical, conscious Both pathways can be triggered simultaneously Physiology of Emotion Other areas of the brain involved with emotions: Hemispheres of the brain right hemisphere: interpreting facial expression Left frontal lobe: positive emotions (e.g., happiness) Right frontal lobe: negative emotions (e.g., sadness) Lateral prefrontal cortex & anterior cingulate cortex: regulation of emotions (e.g., distraction, reappraisal) Expression of Emotion Facial expressions, body movements & actions indicate emotions of a person to others 7 universal facial expression (Ekman & Friesen, 1969) Expression of emotion (display rules) varies across cultures and gender Experience of Emotion Subjective (conscious) experience of an emotion: labelling Cognitive appraisal (retrieving similar past memories, perceiving context of emotion Coming up with a label for the emotion (e.g., anger) Emotion labeling is largely learned response, influenced by one’s culture and language Theories of Emotion 1. Common Sense Theory of Emotion 2. James-Lange Theory of Emotion 3. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion 4. Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion 5. Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion 6. Lazarus Cognitive Mediational Theory of Emotion Common Sense Theory Common Sense Theory considered the first theory of emotion Cry because sad; tremble because afraid; lash out because angry James-Lange Theory James-Lange Theory: commonsense theory reversed Sad because cry; angry because lash out; afraid because tremble Criticism: experience of emotion in patients with spinal cord injuries same after injury as before Cannon-Bard Theory Cannon-Bard Theory: arousal and emotion occur concurrently Criticism: alternate feedback pathway (to ANS) vagus nerve (cranial nerve) Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory Cognitive Arousal theory: arousal and appraisal of arousal (based on cues from environment) occur before subjective experience & labeling of emotion Criticism: Most research has failed to support this theory, despite Schachter & Singer’s Angry/Happy Man study Facial Feedback Theory Facial Feedback Theory: facial expressions associated with arousal provide feedback to the brain about the emotion, which in turn interprets the emotion and even intensify it Criticism: does “putting on a happy face” always make you feel happier? Lazarus Cognitive Mediational Theory Lazarus Cognitive Mediational Theory: appraisal of stimulus results in emotional reaction and followed by physical arousal Criticism: Some emotional reactions are instantaneous (no time for cognitive appraisal); fast short route thalamus → amygdala Theories of Emotion Which theory of emotion is the best? Could one theory capture the complexity of human emotions? Could one theory be applicable to myriads of emotion- provoking situations? Could one theory be applicable to all types of personalities? Could one theory explain the experience of emotion in patients with organic injuries? Could one theory account for our biological predispositions as well as environmental influences on our experience of emotion? End Emotions, Stress & Health – Part 1 of 2 HSC1010 Emotions, Stress & Health Part 2: Stress & Illness, Health & Coping Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Describe stress and its different types Distinguish between external and internal stressors Explain how different types of conflict cause stress Understand how the SNS reacts to stress and the body’s physiological adaptation to stress Describe how stress affects the immune system & health Identify conditions associated with stress Explain the role of cognition in stress Understand how personality types & traits impact health Distinguish between problem-focused and emotion-focussed coping strategies Identify psychological factors that reduce stress & illness Understanding Stress Types of Stress External Stress and Internal Stress Measuring Stress Stress Stress: multifaceted reaction (physical, emotional, cognitive, behavioural) to a stimulus that is appraised as threatening or challenging Stressors: any stimulus (internal or external) that causes a stress reaction Strains: negative consequences that occur when stressors perceived to exceed one’s capacity Types of Stress Distress: negative and unhealthy stress (e.g., financial problems, relationship issues) Eustress: positive and healthy stress (e.g., starting a university degree, getting married) Hyperstress: excessive stress (e.g., ↓ immunity, hyperventilation, loss of sleep) Hypostress: insufficient stress (e.g., boredom) Hypostress Hyperstress Types of Stress Acute Stress: sudden and short-term stress Chronic Stress: long-term and prolonged stress Characteristics Acute Chronic Rapid onset Gradual onset Short duration Long duration (months-years) Well-defined cause, typically one Many causes, or no defined cause Manageable with treatment Persistent and often treatment-resistant Ranges from mild to severe Ranges from mild to severe May be accompanied by restlessness and May be accompanied by depression, anxiety anxiety, fatigue, decreased functionality No significant impact on body Wear and tear on the body External Stressors External (Environmental) Stressors: Catastrophes (e.g., tsunami, hurricane, 9/11) Major Life Changes (e.g., divorce, death of loved one) Everyday Hassles (e.g., traffic jams, no wifi) Family Stressors (e.g., parent-child / sibling issues) Social Stressors (e.g., relationship issues, discrimination) Work Stressors (e.g., difficult boss, large workload) Measures of Stressors Two well-known measures of major life events: 1. Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS, Holmes & Rahe, 1967): Assesses impact of major life events over a 1-year period Degree of stress: total score of life change units for all experienced events Association between major life events and health (e.g., Rahe, 1970) Score ≤ 150 = 30% chance of getting sick in near future Score 150-299 = 50% change of getting sick Score ≥ 300 = 80% chance of getting sick SRRS suggests that change in one’s life requires effort to adapt and effort to regain stability SRRS Measures of Stressors 2. College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS, Renner & Mackin, 1998) SRRS version for college students Assesses impact of major life events over a 1-year college period Average college student experiences 15-20 stressful events a year Possible scores range from 182 – 2571 Normal range is 800 – 1700 (average score = 1247) CUSS Internal Stressors Internal (Psychological) Stressors: Pressure: psychological experience caused by urgent demands on a person from an outside source (e.g., time) Uncontrollability: degree of control person has over a particular stressor (↓ control → ↑stress) Frustration: psychological experience caused when a person’s goals are blocked or unattainable typical responses: persistence, aggression, escape/withdrawal (related to personality type) Conflict: psychological experience related to existence of competing and incompatible goals or action Conflict Types approach–approach conflict: choosing between two desirable possibilities new smartphone or holiday avoidance–avoidance conflict: choosing between two undesirable possibilities homework or housework approach–avoidance conflict: choosing a goal with both positive and negative aspects getting a promotion but having to work more multiple approach–avoidance conflicts: choosing between two goals, each possessing both positive and negative features highly-paid job overseas away from friends and family or lower-paid job at home Biological Perspectives of Stress Physiological Reactions Stress and Health Stress & Body Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) reacts when body is subjected to stress; also known as the Fight or Flight System Flight or fight response: physiological reaction of SNS in response to perceived harmful event or threat to survival (Cannon 1920) Also activated when stressed as body perceives stress as threat When danger sensed hypothalamus sets off chemical alarm SNS responds by releasing flood of stress hormones (adrenaline, norepinephrine, cortisol) into bloodstream, readying us to either flee or fight Stress & Body General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): body’s physiological adaptation to stress occurs in 3 stages (Seyle 1956): Stress & Body Physical reactions at 3 stages of GAS  Immune System Immune system: body’s defense system against disease (e.g., viruses, bacteria, cancer cells) comprising biological structures and processes Organs of Immune System lymphocytes Thymus – glandular organ where T cells get informed Bone marrow – blood producing tissue inside some bones Spleen – removes old/damaged red blood cells and infectious agents, activates lymphocytes Lymph nodes – small organs that filter out dead cells, antigens → lymphocytes Lymphatic vessels – collect fluid (lymph) from tissues and return it to circulation Stress & Health Psychoneuroimmunology: studies the how psychological, neural and endocrine processes affect our immune system and health Stress (especially chronic) → suppressed immune system Stress-weakened immune system ↑ likelihood of illness Stress associated with slower wound healing Stress associated with susceptibility to common cold (Cohen et al, 1998) GAS: prolonged physiological resistance to stress leads to exhaustion Stress does NOT make one sick, but it alters immune functioning → making one less able to resist infection Stress & Illness Coronary Heart Disease Stress → build up of plague in arteries (liver can’t clear fat & cholesterol from bloodstream, SNS aroused); clogged arteries → heart attacks / Type 2 Diabetes ↑ stress / prolonged stress associated with weight gain → pancreas insulin levels become less efficient as body size ↑ Cancer Stress ↑ growth of cancer cells; weakens body’s natural defenses (NK cells) against multiplying malignant cells Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) & Acquired Immune Deficiency System (AIDS) Stress speeds transition of HIV to AIDS; faster deterioration Depression Stress → overactivity of body’s stress response mechanism; chronic stress ↑hormones (cortisol: stress hormone) & ↓ serotonin & neurotransmitters in brain (incl. dopamine related to depression) Psychological Perspectives of Stress Stress and Cognition Stress and Personality Coping with Stress Stress & Cognition Cognitive Appraisal Approach (Lazarus 1991): experience of stress is dependent on the appraisal (interpretation) of stressor based on 2 factors: level of threat & resources available primary appraisal: assessing severity of stressor: threat or challenge secondary appraisal: assessing resources available to cope with the stressor Psychology, 4th ed. 2015, Ciccarelli & White Stress & Personality Type A Personality (Freidman & Roseman, 1974) Characteristics Health ambitious / achievement oriented aggression hardworking / competitive hypertension time conscious / impatient heart disease hostile job stress easily annoyed social isolation Type A Personality associated with ↑ coronary heart disease (CHD) Type B Personality (Freidman & Roseman, 1974) Characteristics Health relaxed and laid-back less likely to develop heart disease patient than Type A less driven and competitive apathetic slow to anger Type B Personality associated with ↓ CHD and ↑ relaxed lifestyle Stress & Personality Type C Personality (Temoshok & Dreher, 1992) Characteristics Health pleasant but repressed higher cancer rates difficulty expressing emotions loneliness internalise anger & anxiety internal conflict overly patient & compliant despair and hopelessness Type C Personality associated with cancer Hardy Personality (Kobasa, 1979) Characteristics thrive on stress but lacks anger & Health hostility eustress strong commitment to values resilient in control of own lives view problems as challenges Hardy Personality associated with a healthier lifestyle Overview of Personality Types Criticisms: Too simplistic to capture complexities of personality Distinction of type A and B personality not entirely supported by professionals Type A behaviour not a good predictor of CHD More sophisticated model needed to accurately predict CHD Benefits: Characteristics can help understand the underlying mechanisms of personality associated with stress and health Useful for developing effective intervention plans Stress & Personality A person’s typical explanation of stressors (explanatory style) has a significant impact on experience of stress: optimism v pessimism Optimists: tend to focus on the positive aspects of a situation Pessimists: tend to focus on negative and expect the worst Seligman’s research (1998, 2002) indicated that optimists: more likely to take care of their health (more in control) have a better immune system (↓ psychological stress) less likely to quit trying to achieve a goal that has been blocked in the past (learned helplessness) less likely to become depressed Stress & Social Factors Poverty basic needs not met, limited resources, poor medical care and ill-health Job Stress & Burnout workload, work schedule, lack of fulfillment, limited control prolonged work stress → burnout (exhaustion) Social Support good social support → better immune system, less illnesses (physical & mental), longevity, better health & coping mechanisms Culture having to adapt to new & dominant culture (acculturation) Coping with Stress Coping Strategies: techniques to manage and reduce stress Stressor is Controllable Uncontrollable Coping strategy Problem-focused Emotion-focused Reappraisal of situation Seeking information Exercise / Recreation (short-term Goal-setting avoidance) Decision-making Active Meditation / Relaxation Problem-solving (Adaptive) Faith / Spiritual support Requesting help Expressing emotions (journal, Conflict resolution talking to others, venting) Cognitive restructuring Social Support Self-neglect Social withdrawal Behavioural Avoidance Passive Rumination (long-term) (Maladaptive) Distractive behaviours (smoking, Cognitive Avoidance (denial) alcohol, drugs) Resignation Coping with Stress Culture Perception of stressors and experience of stress vary culturally Coping strategies vary cross-culturally Faith / Religion spiritual / religious people found to cope better with stress healthier behaviours, stronger social support, positive emotions Coping with Stress Psychological factors ↓ stress & illness and ↑healthy behaviours: Realistic Optimism: having a positive outlook on life as well as a realistic grasp of the present and what to expect in life Conscientiousness: purposeful action, self-discipline, and a drive to achieve (enjoy challenges) Internal locus of control: perception that one is in control of own behaviour and consequences How to Be a Realistic Optimist Practice positive thinking (focus on positives, strengths, past gains) When pessimism strikes, consider your explanatory style (what are the main thoughts that drive it?) Question your negative beliefs (how helpful and logical are they?) Modify your negative beliefs (what is a helpful and logical way to think about the situation?) Consider past achievements Treat hurdles as challenges (recall process of meeting goals in past) Engage in realistic goal setting (including Plan B) Pat yourself on the back End Emotions, Stress & Health – Part 2 of 2