Topic 6 Motivation and Emotion PDF

PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 1 Topic VI: Motivation and Emotions What is motivation? Motivation is a need or desire that energises and directs behaviour. It propels us to act in the ways that we do. Moti...

PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 1 Topic VI: Motivation and Emotions What is motivation? Motivation is a need or desire that energises and directs behaviour. It propels us to act in the ways that we do. Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behaviour. There are three major components of motivation: activation (the decision to initiate behaviour), persistence (the continuation of behaviour), and intensity (the vigor and energy expended). Theories of Motivation Instinct/Evolutionary Theory Instinct/evolutionary theory—An instinct is a complex behaviour that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and unlearned. Charles Darwin influenced this perspective, which led to classifying behaviours based on instincts. Assumption: Genes predisposed to some species-typical behaviours. Examples: urge to procreate, a mother hearing a baby’s cry. Psychoanalysis We’re motivated by drives/instincts: Sexual drive - Gives rise to erotic component of mental activity Aggressive drive - Gives rise to the destructive component of mental activity Aggression, if focused on self, leads to self-criticism, depression, and addiction. Depression is aggression turned inward. Aggression, if focused outward, can lead to anger, prejudice, hate, revenge, and war. A hostile ethnic joke is an expression of Thanatos. Drive Reduction Theory Drive reduction theory – physiological needs create an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need. The aim of drive reduction was homeostasis (a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state) Central beliefs: Physiological need → e.g. food or water Tension state/drive →e.g. hunger, thirst Drive reducing behaviour → e.g. eating, drinking Optimum Arousal Hypothesis Arousal theory: Individuals are motivated to seek optimum levels of arousal. This theory can explain why individuals may engage in behaviour that increases stress, such as differences in sensation-seeking or trill-seeking behaviours. People seek an optimum level of arousal; when stimulation is too low, more stimulation is desired; when arousal is too high, less stimulation is sought. Incentive Theory of Motivation The Incentive Theory of Motivation suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards. For example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid. Behavioural learning concepts such as association and reinforcement play an important role in this theory of motivation. The incentive theory is one of the major theories of motivation. It suggests that we are motivated to do things out of a desire for reinforcement or incentives. Incentives can be either positive or negative. We are motivated to obtain positive incentives, whereas we are motivated to avoid negative incentives.  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 2 Primary reinforcers: Prior learning is not needed, such as sex or food. A conditioned reinforcer is a previously neutral stimulus. If the neutral stimulus is paired with a primary reinforcer, it acquires the same reinforcement properties associated with the primary reinforcer. Money is a conditioned reinforcer. The actual paper bills are not reinforcing; however, they can be used to acquire primary reinforcers such as food, water, and shelter. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory – Maslow’s pyramid of human needs begins with physiological needs and psychological needs higher up the pyramid. Physiological needs – need to satisfy hunger and thirst Safety needs - needs to feel the world is organised and predictable, to feel safe, secure and stable. Belongingness and love need – Need to feel loved and be loved and accepted and avoid loneliness and tension Self-esteem needs: the need for self-esteem and achievement, competence and independence, and recognition and respect from others. Self-actualization – Need to live up to fullest and unique potential Self-transcendence – need to find meaning and identity beyond self. Hunger as a Motivator Physiological factors that produce hunger Stomach pangs (contractions in the stomach) Hypothalamus – monitors appetite hormones, taste and texture of food. Damage can lead to overeating or undereating. Basal metabolic rate – the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure o Monitors appetite hormones – ghrelin (signals hunger to the brain), Insulin (controls blood glucose, when low, we feel hungry), Leptin (protein hormone secreted by fat, in surplus, increases metabolism), Orexin (hunger triggering hormones secreted by the hypothalamus), PYY (Digestive tract hormone that sends an “I am not hungry” signal to the brain). Set point – a weight thermostat. Body falls below this weight → increase in hunger → lowered metabolic rate → lost weight regained. Some prefer a settling point determined by actual food intake The Psychology of Hunger Knowing when to eat isn’t only based on hunger, but when we had our last meal. Biology and culture—Cultural differences influence our tastes and preferences. For example, Westerners, unlike Asians, do not eat cheese. Persons who repeatedly try novel food and drink are more likely to increase their willingness to try new food. E.g. Andrew Zimmern, Mark Wiens. Adaptive – pregnant mothers may feel nausea at the smell of meat when the embryos are most vulnerable. Environmental factors o Sleep loss leads to a rise in ghrelin (appetite stimulant) Social influence o Friend obese? → your odds triple o Greater consumption of food, less movement  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 3 Emotions Emotions are “complex multi-component episode that creates a readiness to act” (Frijda, 1986). Components of emotion Physiological arousal Expressive behaviour Conscious experience Cognition appraisal Theories of Emotions James-Lange Theory James stated physiological responses/actions occur, and then we experience emotions. We feel emotions after we notice the physiological arousal/response action. Stimulation/event …physiological response ----emotion For example, see a snake, heart starts racing, and the feel fear. You feel afraid because your heart is racing. Criticism of James-Lange Theory Some complex emotions like guilt require an appraisal of the situation Cannon-Bard Theory Bodily responses and experienced emotions occur separately but simultaneously. E.g. see snake…heart racing and feeling fear separately but simultaneously. Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factor Theory (1962) To experience emotion, one needs: Physiological arousal Cognitive label arousal Conscious interpretation Emotion starts with awareness of arousal Spillover effect: Arousal from a previous event spilling over to another situation. Cognition and Emotion Emotional experiences follow two paths ✓ High road: A stimulus following this brain path would travel to the brain's cortex (via the thalamus, which sorts and relays information to different parts of the brain), then analysed and labelled before the response command is sent out via the amygdala. ✓ Low road: Simple emotions such as likes, dislikes and fears take the low road, a neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex directly to the amygdala. The amygdala can respond to alarming situations before the cortex does. Psych Evolutionary Theory Emotions are: innate & unlearned e.g. - a smile Neural structure & physiology to express emotions inherited Animals have similar emotions Emotions are adaptive: Allow solving of problems important to survival e.g. expressions of anger help you to escape. Communicate threats, greetings, submission  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 4 Communicates useful info to others: Sadness (please comfort me), Fear (be careful there is danger here), Anger (beware someone may act aggressively) Facial Feedback Hypothesis Facial expressions affect the experience of emotions. The brain interprets sensations from the movement of facial muscles and skin as different emotions. For example, if you smile and hold the smile, you will begin to feel happier, or if you frown and hold it, you will begin to feel sad. Criticism: Persons with facial paralysis can experience emotions. Clarification: facial feedback may intensify and influence emotions Behaviour Feedback Hypothesis One moves one’s body as if experiencing a particular emotion; one feels the emotion. For example: Dragging steps, head bent, one feels sad Physiology and Emotion Hypothalamus Controls ANS and Endocrine System Autonomic Nervous System Route for triggering body signs of emotion Sympathetic division: arousing → heart pounding, perspiration, stress hormones Parasympathetic Division: Calming → slowing of heart rate etc Endocrine System Limbic system Experience and expression of emotion Amygdala (part of limbic system) Critical for fear and rage Basic Emotions (Izard, 1977) Interest/excitement –fixed tracking stare Joy – smile Surprise/startle – raised eyebrows and eye blink Sadness –crying Fear/terror –wide open eyes, withdrawal, cold sweating Shame/humiliation – lowering of head or eyes Contempt – raising the upper lip in a sneer Disgust – protrusion and lowering of the lower lip Anger/rage – frown, clenched jaw Guilt – looking down to the side to avoid making eye contact Emotions are directly detectable through universal signs Often detected on the face Eyes – fear, anger Mouth – happiness Emotions are indirectly detectable through universal signs Detected in the body & face Some unable to read non-verbal cues -autistic  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 5 Gender and Emotion Women > men Understanding nonverbal emotions Better at understanding others emotions Describe selves as empathic Expressing empathy e.g. crying Experience emotional events more deeply Faces show emotion Culture and emotion Expressed in same ways across cultures Blind children show same expressions Reason – evolution, emotions are adaptive What differs across cultures Degree of emotional expression Some gestures e.g. Chinese clapping hands to express worry  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 6 Self-Study Reading the corresponding book chapter is important for success in this course. Attempt these questions only after reading the notes and chapter in the text. This will help you assess if you have retained the information. It would be best to try the exercises without referring to your notes. Fill in the Blanks 1. ______________is a need or desire that energises and directs behaviour. 2. Freud’s psychoanalysis suggests that the __________ drive gives rise to the destructive component of mental activity. 3. Drive reduction theory posits that physiological needs create an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need, aiming for __________. 4. According to arousal theory, individuals are motivated to seek __________ levels of arousal. 5. The incentive theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to do things because of __________ rewards. 6. In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, the need for _______________ includes the need for achievement, competence, independence, and recognition and respect from others. 7. The _________________is the region of the brain that plays a crucial role in monitoring hormones that influence hunger. 8. The components of emotion include physiological arousal, expressive behaviour, conscious experience, and __________ appraisal. 9. The _____________ posits that physiological responses occur first, and then we experience emotions. 10. The _________________suggests that bodily responses and experienced emotions occur separately but simultaneously. 11. _____________________ requires both physiological arousal and a cognitive label of the arousal to experience emotion. 12. The __________ triggers the body's signs of emotion and includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 7 Short Answer Questions 1. Explain the concept of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and its importance in understanding motivation. 2. Discuss the role of the hypothalamus in regulating hunger according to the provided notes. 3. Describe the high road and low road pathways of emotional processing and give an example of each. 4. Explain the James-Lange Theory of emotion and provide an example illustrating this theory.