Psychology Chapter 23-25 PDF

**Influences on Motivation** 23.1.01 Instinct **Motivation** describes the factors that prompt action toward a goal. Evolutionary theorists claim that behaviors are motivated by instincts. An **instinct** is an innate, fixed pattern of behavior that is more complex than a reflex, which is a simple...

**Influences on Motivation** 23.1.01 Instinct **Motivation** describes the factors that prompt action toward a goal. Evolutionary theorists claim that behaviors are motivated by instincts. An **instinct** is an innate, fixed pattern of behavior that is more complex than a reflex, which is a simple response to a stimulus (eg, jerking one\'s hand away from a hot stove). Instincts are not based on prior experience or learning. For example, newly hatched sea turtles instinctively know to move toward the ocean and swim. 23.1.02 Drives A **drive** is an internal state that motivates an organism to fulfill a need. Biological needs (eg, food) resulting from physiological changes (eg, a decrease in glucose levels) create drives. Drives (eg, hunger) then prompt action (eg, food-seeking behaviors). Drives are discussed further in Concept 23.2.01. 23.1.03 Arousal Theory The **arousal theory** of motivation suggests that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousal. For example, if bored at home, one will go out dancing, or if overwhelmed at a party, one will step outside for a quieter setting. Researchers have identified a relationship between arousal and performance. The **Yerkes-Dodson law** indicates that there is an optimal level of physiological or mental arousal at which performance is maximized; performance will decline with too little or too much arousal. For example, athletes tend to perform best when nervous but not too nervous. 23.1.04 Needs Some psychologists classify factors that prompt behaviors (ie, motivation) as types of needs. Researchers have identified several psychological needs, including: The need for power: a desire to influence other people and have control over them. The need for affiliation: a desire for positive social relationships and interactions. The need for achievement (also known as achievement motivation): a desire to improve upon one\'s past performance, compete with high standards, and attain significant accomplishments **Theories of Motivation** 23.2.01 Drive Reduction Theory As Concept 23.1.02 introduces, a drive is an internal state that prompts action. The **drive reduction theory** proposes that motivation results from a disruption of homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to physiological equilibrium (balance). Certain physiological changes (eg, a decrease in glucose levels) disrupt homeostasis, creating a biological need. A drive (eg, hunger) prompts the organism to fulfill that need (eg, to eat) and restore homeostasis (eg, normal glucose levels). An example of drive reduction is depicted in Figure 23.1. **Figure 23.1** Drive reduction theory example. 23.2.02 Incentive Theory Behavior that is primarily motivated by external rewards (eg, money), external pressures (eg, deadlines), or biological drives (eg, hunger) can be classified as **extrinsically motivated**. In contrast, **intrinsic motivation** refers to behavior that is primarily motivated by internal rewards (eg, enjoyment). Examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are illustrated in Figure 23.2. A diagram of a person in a cooler Description automatically generated Chapter 23: Motivation **Figure 23.2** Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation. The **incentive theory** of motivation suggests that organisms are motivated to act to obtain external rewards (ie, incentives) or to avoid negative consequences (eg, punishment). For example, an individual might complete chores, not because they enjoy cleaning (an internal factor), but because they want to get money from their grandfather for completing the chores (an external reward). 23.2.03 Other Theories **Expectancy Theory** The **expectancy theory** of motivation proposes that individuals are motivated to act based on the expected outcomes of their behavior. According to this theory, motivation involves expectancy, instrumentality, and valence: Expectancy is the belief that one will be able to achieve the desired outcome. Asking students to rate how successful they think they will be on an exam is a measure of expectancy. Instrumentality is the belief that one has control over the desired outcome. Asking students to rate how much control they believe they have over their success on an exam is a measure of instrumentality. Valence involves the value placed on the desired outcome. Asking students to rate how much they want to succeed on an exam is a measure of valence. **The Hierarchy of Needs** Lastly, as Lesson 26.2 covers, Abraham Maslow\'s **hierarchy of needs** proposes that humans are motivated to achieve needs in a hierarchy of importance; lower needs (eg, shelter) must be met before higher needs (eg, esteem **The Principles and Components of Emotion** 24.1.01 Components of Emotion The three components of emotion are: The **cognitive** component, which includes all the mental processes that accompany the emotion (eg, thoughts, evaluation of the context). The **behavioral** component, which is the immediate outward expression that occurs in response to an emotion. These responses are typically involuntary (eg, smiling, gasping). The **physiological** component, which includes all the bodily processes that accompany the emotion (eg, changes in heart rate, sweating). 24.1.02 Universal Emotions The **universal emotion theory** states that certain emotions are expressed and detected by everyone, regardless of culture. According to this theory, the universal emotions include happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise (Figure 24.1). **Figure 24.1** Universal emotions. In Paul Ekman\'s experiments, individuals from different cultures were shown photographs of people displaying different facial expressions. Regardless of their cultural background, participants were able to identify universal emotions from the photographs. 24.1.03 Adaptive Function of Emotions Emotions and empathy play an adaptive role by allowing humans to emotionally connect with others and by fostering group cohesion. A desire to experience certain emotions (eg, happiness, pride) and avoid other emotions (eg, embarrassment, shame) causes people to behave in predictable, socially acceptable ways. Understanding the emotions of others (ie, empathy) and expressing emotions to others are important elements of social interaction **Theories of Emotion** 24.2.01 Theories of Emotion Theories of emotion attempt to explain why emotions exist and how they are generated and experienced. There are several major theories of emotion, including the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories. The **James-Lange theory** of emotion states that specific physiological responses (eg, racing heart, sweating) produce specific emotions (eg, fear). For example, when approached by a snarling dog, a person will experience a racing heart (ie, physiological arousal), and this causes the feeling of fear (ie, subjective emotion). In contrast, the **Cannon-Bard theory** of emotion states that physiological arousal and subjective emotion occur simultaneously. For example, when approached by a snarling dog, a person will simultaneously experience a racing heart (ie, physiological arousal) and the feeling of fear (ie, subjective emotion). Finally, the **Schachter-Singer theory** (also called the two-factor theory) of emotion states that physiological arousal followed by cognitive appraisal (ie, interpretation) of that arousal (eg, \"this situation is dangerous; my pounding heart signifies fear\") produces emotions. For example, when approached by a snarling dog, a person will experience a racing heart (ie, physiological arousal) and interpret or label that arousal through cognitive appraisal, which causes the feeling of fear (ie, subjective emotion). The Schachter-Singer theory addresses a limitation of the James-Lange theory: that most emotions correspond with nearly identical physiological responses. In other words, anger, fear, and excitement might all produce similar elevations in heart rate, but the experience of each emotion is quite different because emotion is the result of two factors, physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of the situation. The James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories of emotion are contrasted in Figure 24.2. Chapter 24: Emotion 142 **Figure 24.2** Contrasting the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories of emotion. **The Biological Underpinnings of Emotion** 24.3.01 The Biological Underpinnings of Emotion As Concept 4.3.01 introduces, several forebrain structures contribute to emotion, memory, and motivation; these brain areas are sometimes collectively referred to as the [limbic system](javascript:void(0)). Limbic structures particularly involved in emotion include: The **amygdala**, which plays a role in aggression and emotions such as fear (Figure 24.3). The amygdala is involved in fear conditioning and the formation of other emotionally charged memories. Researchers have shown that electrical stimulation of the amygdala can lead to displays of fear and aggression, whereas damage to the amygdala can result in a lack of fear. **Figure 24.3** The amygdala. The **hypothalamus**, which releases hormones and controls the pituitary gland\'s hormone release (Figure 24.4); it coordinates many bodily processes such as hunger, growth, and the fight-or-flight stress response, as Lesson 4.5 discusses. The hypothalamus contributes to the physiological component of emotion (eg, changes in heart or respiration rate) by acting on the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system.  **Attitudes and Behavior** 25.1.01 Influence of Behavior on Attitudes An **attitude** refers to an individual\'s evaluation of or inclination towards something (eg, another person, an object, an event). Attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral and can change over time. Psychologists have identified three components of attitudes: The affective component involves how a person feels about something, including positive or negative emotions (eg, excitement, anger). For example, a person might have strong negative feelings about a political candidate, causing them to favor that candidate\'s opponent. The cognitive component involves a person\'s beliefs and opinions about something. For example, a person might believe that a particular political candidate has characteristics or experiences that make that candidate well-suited to hold office. The behavioral component involves how a person acts toward something. In the above examples, voting for or against a political candidate reflects the behavioral component of attitude. A **role** (also called a social role) refers to the specific expected behaviors that correspond to a particular status in society (see Concept 36.3.01). In studies that ask participants to assume certain social roles, the behaviors that align with those roles have been shown to impact the participants\' attitudes. In the Stanford prison experiment (Figure 25.1), researchers assigned participants to the role of prisoner or guard and observed their behavior over several days in a prison-like environment. The experiment revealed that the participants changed their behavior to conform to the assigned roles and that the participants\' behavior began to influence their attitudes. For example, over the course of the study, the participants in the role of guard became increasingly hostile toward their peers assigned the role of prisoner. This hostility occurred to such an extent that the study was terminated prematurely out of concern for the participants\' safety. **Figure 25.1** The Stanford prison experiment. A diagram of a prison system Description automatically generated Chapter 25: Attitudes 146 Convincing people to change their attitudes or behaviors is known as persuasion. Two examples of persuasion techniques in which behavior influences attitudes are (Figure 25.2): The **foot-in-the-door strategy**, which involves first posing a small or easy request (eg, permission to go on a trip) and then when it is granted, posing a much bigger request (eg, chaperoning the trip). Individuals are more likely to agree to the larger request after agreeing to a smaller one. The **door-in-the-face strategy**, which involves first posing a big request (eg, chaperoning a trip) and then when it is declined, posing a much smaller or easier request (eg, permission to go on the trip). Individuals are more likely to agree to the smaller request after declining a larger one. **Figure 25.2** The foot-in-the-door versus the door-in-the-face strategies.  Chapter 25: Attitudes 147 25.1.02 Cognitive Dissonance Theory **Cognitive dissonance** occurs when contradictory thoughts and/or behaviors cause mental discomfort, which results in motivation to reduce the discomfort by aligning those thoughts and/or behaviors. For example, if a health-conscious individual knows there are negative health consequences of eating fast food but wants to continue eating burgers, he may experience psychological tension. To reduce this mental discomfort, the individual may try to convince himself that burgers are not that unhealthy (Figure 25.3). **Figure 25.3** Cognitive dissonance example.