Exam 3 Psych PDF

Exam3 Terms Chapter 10: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (8 Types) Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single ability but consists of multiple types, each representing different ways of processing information: 1.​ Linguistic: Word-based skills (e.g., writers, poets)....

Exam3 Terms Chapter 10: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (8 Types) Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single ability but consists of multiple types, each representing different ways of processing information: 1.​ Linguistic: Word-based skills (e.g., writers, poets). 2.​ Logical-Mathematical: Logical reasoning and problem-solving (e.g., scientists, mathematicians). 3.​ Musical: Sensitivity to sound patterns and music (e.g., composers, musicians). 4.​ Bodily-Kinesthetic: Control of body movements and coordination (e.g., athletes, dancers). 5.​ Spatial: Visualizing and manipulating objects in space (e.g., architects, artists). 6.​ Interpersonal: Understanding and interacting well with others (e.g., teachers, leaders). 7.​ Intrapersonal: Self-awareness and understanding one’s own emotions (e.g., philosophers, psychologists). 8.​ Naturalistic: Recognizing patterns in nature (e.g., biologists, conservationists). Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (3 Types) Robert Sternberg suggested three main aspects of intelligence: 1.​ Analytical Intelligence: Problem-solving and logical reasoning, measured by traditional IQ tests. 2.​ Creative Intelligence: Ability to generate new ideas and adapt to novel situations.  3.​ Practical Intelligence: Everyday skills and "street smarts" to handle real-world tasks. Emotional Intelligence (4 Components) Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and manage emotions effectively: 1.​ Perceiving Emotions: Recognizing emotions in yourself and others. 2.​ Understanding Emotions: Knowing what causes emotions and how they evolve. 3.​ Managing Emotions: Regulating your own emotions and responding appropriately to others. 4.​ Using Emotions: Applying emotions to problem-solving and creative thinking. Chapter 11- Motivation o motivation: A need or desire that gives you energy and directs your behavior. o 4 motivation theories: o instinct theory: focuses on the idea that some behaviors come naturally to us for survival, like animals hunting without being taught. o drive-reduction theory: focuses on how we respond to physiological needs. For example feeling hunger, thirst and reducing the need by eating or drinking. ▪ homeostasis: a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state. ▪ incentive: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. o arousal theory: focuses on finding the right level of stimulation.  -​ Humans are motivated to engage in behaviors that either increase or decrease arousal levels. -​ High arousal = motivated to lower -​ Low arousal = motivated increase ▪ Yerkes-Dodson law: Has to do with the arousal theory and is a principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. o Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: focuses on the priority of some needs over others. -​ Maslow’s five levels of human needs, beginning with physiological needs. Often visualized as a pyramid with basic needs providing the foundation. Self-transcendence needs: need to find meaning and identity beyond the self Self-actualization needs: need to live up to our fullest and unique potential Esteem needs: need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others. Belongingness and love needs: need to love and be loved, to belong to be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation. Safety needs: need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable. Physiological needs: need to satisfy hunger and thirst. Chapter 12 – Emotion/Stress/Health  o emotions: adaptive responses that support survival. 3 emotional components: body arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience. o emotion theories:​ o James-Lange theory: the theory that our body reacts first, then you feel the emotion. -​ Example: You’re walking in the woods, and you see a bear. Your heart starts pounding, and you start trembling. Then, you feel fear because you notice your body’s reaction. o Cannon-Bard theory: the theory that the body reacts at the same time you feel the emotion. -​ Example: You’re driving and almost get hit by another car. At the same moment, your heart races, and you feel fear simultaneously. o Schachter-Singer Two-factor theory: a theory that says emotions are created in two steps: 1.​ Your body reacts (like your heart racing). 2.​ You figure out why (like thinking, "I’m scared because there’s a bear!"). o LaDoux & Zajonc: a theory that some emotions, like fear, happen so fast that your brain doesn’t stop to think first. -​ For example:​ If you see a snake, you might feel scared instantly because the signal goes straight to your amygdala (the part of your brain that handles fear) without involving the thinking part of your brain.  o Lazarus: the theory that emotions arise from judging if an event is harmless or dangerous (can be conscious OR without awareness). - Example: You hear a loud crash outside. You quickly think, "It’s probably just the wind," so you don’t feel scared. But if you think, "Someone’s breaking in," you feel fear. o Spillover effect: arousal can spill over from one event to another, influencing emotions. -​ Example: You finish an intense workout, and your heart is still racing. Then, someone tells you exciting news, and you feel even more thrilled because of the leftover arousal from your workout. o Eckman’s research: identified universal facial expressions for emotions that are recognized across different cultures. o facial feedback effect: facial expressions can trigger corresponding emotional feelings. o behavior feedback effect: physical behaviors like how you act can influence how we feel. -​ Example: If you smile and stand tall when feeling down, you may start to feel happier—and others might feel uplifted by seeing your positive behavior too. o Izard’s research: identified ten basic emotions that reflect physiology and expressive behavior. -​ Joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt o feel-good, do-good phenomenon: our tendency to be likely to help others when in a good mood. o positive psychology: focuses on strengths and virtues to help individuals and communities thrive. o 3 Pillars of Positive Psychology: -​ positive well-being -​ positive character -​ communities and culture. o subjective well-being: self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life, used along with measures of objectivity well-being, (for example, physical and economic indicators) to judge our quality of life. o happiness correlations: -​ Factors related to happiness; self-esteem, close relationships, meaningful work, gratitude, physical health, and optimism -​ Less related to gender, physical attractiveness, and wealth beyond basic needs. ways to increase happiness: 1.​ Control your life 2.​ Act happy 3.​ Flow 4.​ experiences > physical possessions 5.​ Exercise 6.​ Sleep 7.​ Close relationships 8.​ Focus beyond self 9.​ Gratitude 10.​Spirituality 11.​ Awe and wonder 12.​Label feelings o stress: process by which we perceive and respond to certain events in life(stressors). o cognitive appraisals: the way we evaluate events as challenges or threats impacts stress responders. o fight-or-flight response: a physiological reaction to stress involving the sympathetic nervous system. o general adaptation syndrome (GAS) – -​ 3 phases: -​ Alarm -​ Resistance -​ Exhaustion o stress-health connection: stress influences the immune system and increases vulnerability to illness. o personal control o internal vs external locus of control: Locus of control is about whether you believe you control your life or if outside forces do: ​ Internal locus of control: You believe your actions shape your life (e.g., “I succeeded because I worked hard”). ​ External locus of control: You believe outside factors control your life (e.g., “I failed because the teacher was unfair”). o learned helplessness: feeling like you have lack of control in your life can lead to feelings of helplessness. o self-control: Self-control is the ability to manage your impulses, emotions, and behaviors to achieve long-term goals. o coping: reducing stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. o problem-focused: directly addressing the stressor. o emotion-focused: managing emotions related to the stress. o coping strategy areas: aerobic exercise, relaxation, social support, & faith -​ Aerobic exercise: improves mood and physical health. -​ Relaxation: Practices like mindfulness and deep breathing reduce stress. -​ Social support: Builds resilience and reduces stress. -​ Faith: religious faith can enhance coping and provide emotional support. ​ Chapter 13 (Mod41,42,43&44; skip 43-4&5 and 44-1&2) – Social Psychology o social psychology: The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. o attitude: feelings that influence how we respond to certain situations, often shaped by beliefs. o peripheral route persuasion: occurs when people are convinced by surface-level things, like how attractive or likable someone is, rather than the actual facts or arguments. o central route persuasion: convinces people by presenting clear facts, strong arguments, and logical reasoning, appealing to their ability to think critically. o foot-in-the-door phenomenon: the tendency to agree to a larger request after agreeing to a small one first. o role playing & Zimbardo’s Stanford prison research: this experiment shows how role-playing and adopting roles (like guards or prisoners) can shape behavior and attitudes. o cognitive dissonance theory: which is the uneasy feeling we get when what we do (our actions) conflicts with what we believe (our attitudes). To reduce this discomfort, we usually change either our actions or our beliefs to make them match. -​ For example, if you believe lying is wrong but tell a lie, you might justify it by thinking, “It was just a small lie,” to ease the tension. o fundamental attribution error:The tendency that when we see someone’s behavior, we tend to think it’s because of their personality (who they are) rather than the situation they’re in. o Napolitan & Goethals research: demonstrated that people often judge others' behavior as a reflection of their personality, even when they are explicitly told that the behavior is caused by the situation. o social contagion: Social contagion means that people tend to copy the behaviors, emotions, or ideas of those around them, often without realizing it. o conformity: adjusting our behavior or thinking to align with a group. o Asch’s line experiment: demonstrated that people will often go along with a group even if they know the group is wrong. o normative social influence: demonstrating that people will change their behavior or decisions to fit in with a group because they want to be liked or avoid rejection. o informational social influence: happens when people follow others' opinions or actions because they believe those others have more knowledge or are correct. o Milgram’s obedience research: showed people obey authority figures even when asked to harm others, revealing the power of social influence. o group effects: -​ social facilitation: In the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks. -​ social loafing: people put in less effort when working in a group compared to working alone. -​ deindividuation: means people lose their sense of individuality and self-control when they’re in a group that makes them feel anonymous and excited. -​ group polarization: discussions with like-minded people strengthen existing beliefs and attitudes. o groupthink: occurs when a group prioritizes getting along and agreeing over making the best decision. Chapter 14 (Mod45,46,&47; Skip sections 47-3,4,&5) – Personality o personality: an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting o psychodynamic theory: a theory that our behaviors and decisions are shaped by hidden thoughts, desires, and conflicts in our unconscious mind—things we’re not fully aware of. o psychoanalysis: a therapy method that helps people understand and resolve their mental health issues by uncovering hidden thoughts, feelings, and conflicts in their unconscious mind that are affecting their behavior. o unconscious- refers to the part of the mind that holds thoughts, feelings, and memories we aren’t aware of but that still influence our behavior. o free association: a therapy method where patients talk freely about their thoughts, without filtering or censoring them. The idea is that this unfiltered talking can reveal hidden feelings, memories, or conflicts in the unconscious mind. o id, ego, superego -​ Id: is the part of your personality that holds your basic, instinctual desires, like hunger, sex, and aggression. It works entirely in your unconscious mind and wants immediate pleasure or satisfaction, without caring about consequences. -For example, if you’re hungry during a meeting, your id might push you to grab food immediately, even if it’s inappropriate—it just wants its needs met now. - Ego: the part of your personality that balances the id’s desires, the superego’s moral rules, and the reality of the situation. It acts like a mediator, trying to satisfy the id in a way that is realistic and socially acceptable. - Superego: the part of your personality that represents your moral values and ideals. It acts as your conscience, guiding you to make judgments about right and wrong and pushing you to strive for perfection. o psychosexual stages: -​ Oral (0-18 months): Focuses on mouth (sucking, chewing). -​ Anal (18-36 months): Focuses on bowel and bladder control. -​ Phallic (3-6 years): Focuses on genitals and coping with feelings -​ Latency (6- puberty): Dormant sexual feelings -​ Genital (puberty on): Maturation of sexual interests. o identification: the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos. o fixation: a lingering focus on unresolved conflicts from an earlier psychosexual stage. o defense mechanisms: unconscious strategies your mind uses to protect you from feeling anxiety or stress. The ego uses them to distort reality so you don’t have to face uncomfortable thoughts or feelings directly. -​ repression: a defense mechanism where the mind blocks out and hides thoughts, feelings, or memories that cause anxiety or distress. This keeps them out of your conscious awareness to protect you from emotional discomfort. -​ regression: a defense mechanism where a person copes with anxiety or stress by reverting to behaviors from an earlier stage of development. -​ reaction formation: acting the opposite of what you feel -​ Projection: a defense mechanism where you unconsciously blame others for your own thoughts, feelings, or actions. -​ Rationalization: justifying behaviors with explanations. -​ Displacement: a defense mechanism where you redirect your emotions, especially anger or frustration, from the real source to a safer or less threatening target. -​ For example, if you’re upset with your boss but can’t express it, you might take out your frustration by snapping at a friend or family member instead. - Denial: refusing to believe painful realities. o projective tests: a personality test, such as the TAT or Rorschach that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of people’s inner dynamics.  -​ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): a projective test where people are shown unclear images and asked to create a story about them. The idea is that their stories reveal hidden thoughts, feelings, and motives from their unconscious mind. -​ Rorschach inkblot test: a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots. -​ NeoFreudians (Adler, Horney & Jung): -​ Adler: Focused on overcoming feelings of inferiority (feeling less important, capable, or valuable than others). -​ Horney: Challenged Freud’s views that women were inferior to men and argued that these views were biased by the culture of his time. -​ Jung: expanded Freud’s ideas and introduced the concept of the collective unconscious, which he believed was a shared reservoir of memories, symbols, and archetypes inherited from humanity’s shared past. o humanistic theories: theories that emphasized personal growth and fulfillment. o hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s five levels of human needs, beginning with physiological needs. Often visualized as a pyramid, with basic needs providing the foundation supporting higher-level needs. -​ self-actualization: someone reaching their full potential. - self-transcendence: finding meaning beyond oneself. o unconditional positive regard: Rogers’ idea of accepting someone completely, without judgment. o self-concept: A person’s understanding of themselves and their identity. o trait theories: focus on identifying and describing consistent patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions (traits) that make up one’s personality. o Eysenck 2 Factors: Personality dimensions: -​ Introverted vs. Extraverted -​ Stable vs. Unstable O Big 5 factors: researchers identified five factors that describe personality: -​ Openness -​ Conscientiousness -​ Extraversion -​ Agreeableness -​ Neuroticism O personality inventory: a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits. -​ Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. o person-situation controversy: Debate over whether behavior is more influenced by personality traits or the environment. o social-cognitive perspective: a view that behavior is shaped by a combination of: -​ Personal traits -​ Social context -​ Interaction: how these two factors influence eachother. o reciprocal determinism: the idea that behavior, your thoughts and feelings (internal cognition), and your environment all influence each other in a continuous loop. o personal control: the feelings that you have control of your environment. Chapter 15 (Mod48, 49, 50, 51 & 53; Skip 49-4 & 52) - Disorders o psychological disorder: a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior, causing distress or impairment. o medical model: views psychological disorders as illnesses that can be diagnosed, treated, and sometimes cured, just like physical illnesses. o etiology: the cause or origin of a disorder. o prognosis: the expected course or outcome of a disorder. o DSM-5: The Diagnosis and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edition) is used to classify and diagnose mental disorders. o General disorder related concepts: o dimensional vs categorical ways of understanding symptoms/disorders -​ Dimensional: symptoms exist on a spectrum (mild to severe) -​ Categorical: Disorders are classified as “present” or “absent” o components of all diagnostic criteria -​ Symptoms  -​ Duration -​ Impairment -​ Rule outs o risk & protective factors -​ Risk factors: Increase vulnerability (e.g. trama, substance abuse). -​ Protective factors: Reduce vulnerability (e.g., social support, resilience). o Prevalence rates: Percentage of people in a population with a specific disorder in a given time period. o Anxiety vs fear vs panic -​ Anxiety: Future-oriented worry -​ Fear: Reaction to a present threat. -​ Panic: Sudden, intense fear with physical symptoms. o specific phobia: an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation. o social anxiety disorder: Fear of being judged or scrutinized in social situations, leading to avoidance or distress. o panic disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and ongoing fear of having more attacks. o generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): Excessive, uncontrolled worry about many things for 6+ months, with symptoms like restlessness and sleep problems. o obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): a disorder characterized by -​ Obsessions: Repeated, intrusive thoughts. -​ Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors done to reduce anxiety. o posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a disorder triggered by exposure to trauma, with symptoms like flashbacks, avoidance, and heightened arousal lasting 1+ month. o Mood Disorders: o major depressive disorder (MDD): persistent depressed mood or loss of interest (anhedonia) for 2+ weeks, along with other symptoms like fatigue, guilt, or sleep disturbances. o persistent depressive disorder (PDD): chronic low-level depression lasting 2+ years, less severe but more long lasting than MDD. o bipolar disorders: disorders in which a person experiences the overexcited state of mania (or milder hypomania), and usually experiences a period of depression. -​ mania: an unusually excited and overly ambitious mood state in which people show dangerously poor judgement, less need for sleep, and increased energy. -​ kindling hypothesis: small stressors can trigger episodes over time. o Schizophrenia: a disorder characterized by -​ Positive Symptoms: Added experiences like hallucinations or delusions. -​ Negative Symptoms: Loss of normal function, like flat affect or lack of motivation. o attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity. o Main Explanations for Disorders: -​ Diathesis-Stress model: Disorders result from a combination of genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental stress. -​ Situational Variability: symptoms may vary based on the context (e.g., ADHD symptoms are more noticeable in boring tasks than in engaging ones). Chapter 16 (Mod54&55) – Treatment o psychotherapy: Treatment involving a trained therapist helping a person overcome difficulties or achieve personal growth through psychological techniques. o biomedical therapy: Uses medical approaches, such as medications or procedures, to treat psychological disorders. o eclectic approach: Combines techniques from different therapies based on the client’s needs. o insight therapies: therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses. o psychodynamic therapy: Focuses on uncovering unconscious conflicts from childhood to reduce anxiety and improve self-awareness. o Gestalt approach: emphasizes personal responsibility and focuses on the present moment and self-awareness. o Humanistic/person-centered therapy: a humanistic therapy created by Carl Rogers’s focusing on unconditional positive regard, empathy, and helping clients achieve self-growth. o behavior therapy: focuses on learning to replace maladaptive behaviors with healthier ones using classical and operant conditioning. o counterconditioning: creates new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors. o exposure therapies: Gradually exposes clients to feared objects or situations to reduce avoidance. -​ systematic desensitization: gradual exposure paired with relaxation techniques. o aversive conditioning: Pairs unwanted behaviors with unpleasant stimuli to reduce those behaviors. o operant conditioning: uses rewards and punishments to shape behavior.  -​ token economy: Rewards desired behavior with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges or treats. o cognitive therapies: therapy that teaches people healthier ways of thinking to influence emotions and behaviors. o cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT): a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy with behavior therapy to address self-defeating thoughts and harmful behaviors. o n>1 treatments: used when issues involve relationships or social interactions. -​ Group- therapy conducted with groups setting for shared support and skill-building. -​ Family- therapy that focuses on improving family dynamics and communication. o basic benefits of therapy: therapy provides three universal benefits: -​ Hope for improvement -​ A new perspective on problems -​ A strong therapeutic alliance between therapist and client o evidence-based practice (EBP): therapy based on the integration of: -​ Best available research -​ Clinical expertise -​ Client characteristics, culture, and preferences. o well-established & probably efficacious EBTs: Therapies with strong evidence supporting their effectiveness. o 3-Legged Stool of EBP: Represents the balance of research evidence, clinical expertise, and patient needs in effective treatment.