Topic 1 What Is Psychology PDF

What is Psychology? Jahzeel Jana M. Soriano, RPm PSYCHOLOGY The study of the soul…  Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology, like other sciences, seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control the events it studies Psychologists seek...

What is Psychology? Jahzeel Jana M. Soriano, RPm PSYCHOLOGY The study of the soul…  Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology, like other sciences, seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control the events it studies Psychologists seek to understand the factors that influence behavior and apply this knowledge for the public good for example, to help individuals cope with problems such as anxiety and depression.  Theory A set of hypothesized statements about the relationships among events. Theories propose reasons for relationships among events, as in perception of a threat can arouse feelings of anxiety. They allow us to derive explanations and predictions. Many psychological theories combine statements about behavior, mental processes, and biological processes. A satisfactory psychological theory allows us to predict behavior. WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO? Psychologists engage in research, practice, and teaching. Pure research is undertaken because the researcher is interested in the research topic. Pure research has no immediate application to personal or social problems and has therefore been characterized as research for its own sake. Applied research which is designed to find solutions to specific personal or social problems. Many psychologists do not conduct research. Instead, they practice psychology by applying psychological knowledge to help individuals change their behavior so that they can meet their own goals more effectively. Still other psychologists primarily teach. They share psychological knowledge in classrooms, seminars, andworkshops. Psychologists may also engage in all three: research, practice, and teaching. FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY  1. Clinical psychologists Help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life. Clinical psychologists evaluate problems such as anxiety and depression through interviews and psychological tests. They help clients resolve problems and change self-defeating behavior. For example, they may help clients face “threats,” such as public speaking, by exposing them gradually to situations in which they make presentations to actual or virtual groups. Clinical psychologists are the largest subgroup of psychologists.  2. Counseling psychologists Like clinical psychologists, use interviews and tests to define their clients’ problems. Their clients typically have adjustment problems but not serious psychological disorders. For example, clients may have trouble making academic or vocational decisions; LGBT clients may have difficulty coping with prejudice and discrimination.  3. School psychologists are employed by school systems to identify and assist students who have problems that interfere with learning. They help schools make decisions about the placement of students in special classes. Individual problem  4. Educational psychologists like school psychologists, attempt to facilitate learning, but they usually focus on course planning and instructional methods for a school system rather than on individual children. Educational psychologists research issues such as how learning is affected by psychological factors such as motivation and intelligence, sociocultural factors such as poverty and acculturation, and teachers. Group / School in general  5.Developmental psychologists study the changes physical, cognitive, social, and emotional that occur throughout the life span. They attempt to sort out the influences of heredity and the environment on development  6. Personality psychologists identify and measure human traits and determine influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behavior. They are particularly concerned with issues such as anxiety, aggression, sexual orientation, and gender roles.  7. Social psychologists are concerned with the nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations. Whereas personality psychologists tend to look within the person to explain behavior, social psychologists tend to focus on social influences.  8..Environmental psychologists study the ways that people and the environment the natural environment and the human-made environment influence one another. For example, we know that extremes of temperature and loud noises interfere with learning in school. Environmental psychologists study ways to encourage people to recycle and to preserve bastions of wilderness  Psychologists in all specialties may conduct experiments. 9. Experimental psychologists specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion. For example, experimental psychologists have studied what areas of the brain are involved in processing math problems or listening to music. They use people or animals, such as pigeons and rats, to study learning. 10. Industrial psychologists focus on the relationships between people and work. 11.Organizational psychologists study the behavior of people in organizations such as businesses. 12. Human factors psychologists make technical systems such as automobile dashboards and computer keyboards more user-friendly. 13. Consumer psychologists study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior. They advise store managers on how to lay out the aisles of a supermarket in ways that boost impulse buying, how to arrange window displays to attract customers, and how to make newspaper ads and television commercials more persuasive  14. Forensic psychologists apply psychology to the criminal justice system. They deal with legal matters such as whether a defendant was sane when he or she committed a crime. Forensic psychologists may also treat psychologically ill offenders, consult with attorneys on matters such as picking a jury, and analyze offenders’ behavior and mental processes. They may conduct research on matters ranging from evaluation of eyewitness testimony to methods of interrogation.  15. Sport psychologists help athletes concentrate on their performance and not on the crowd, use cognitive strategies such as positive visualization (imagining themselves making the right moves) to enhance performance, and avoid choking under pressure HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY “Know thyself or know ourselves” – Socrates. Socrates suggested that we should rely on rational thought and introspection—careful examination of one’s own thoughts and emotions—to gain self knowledge. He also pointed out that people are social creatures who influence one another Knowledge of the history of psychology allows us to appreciate its theoretical conflicts, its place among the sciences, the evolution of its methods, and its social and political roles. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) – made many contributions to contemporary psychology: He argued that science could rationally treat only information gathered by the senses. He enumerated the so-called five senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. He explored the nature of cause and effect. He pointed out that people differ from other living things in their capacity for rational thought. He outlined laws of associationism that have lain at the heart of learning theory for more than two millennia. He also declared that people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain—a view that remains as current today as it was in ancient Greece. Democritus (400 BCE) – suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and a mind. He pointed out that our behavior is influenced by external stimulation. Democritus was one of the first to raise the question of whether there is free will or choice. Putting it another way, where do the influences of others end and our “real selves” begin?  STRUCTURALISM Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of structuralism, attempted to break down conscious experience into sensations such as sight and taste, emotions, and mental imagery. Structuralism attempted to break conscious experience down into objective sensations, such as sight or taste, and subjective feelings, such as emotional responses, and mental images such as memories or dreams. Like Aristotle, Wundt saw the mind as a natural occurrence that could be studied scientifically, like light, heat, and the flow of blood. Introspection deliberates looking into one’s own cognitive processes to examine one’s thoughts and emotions Structuralism the school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements— sensations, feelings, and images— that combine to form experience Structuralists believed that the mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience.  FUNCTIONALISM WILLIAM JAMES William James was a founder of the school of functionalism, which focused on behavior as well as the mind or consciousness Functionalists looked at how our experience helps us function more adaptively in our environments Ex. habits help us cope with common situations (daily routines, checking your phone to save yourself from awkward situations, or stress eating) James was also influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809– 1882) theory of evolution. Darwin argued that organisms with adaptive features—that is, the “fittest”—survive and reproduce. Functionalists adapted Darwin’s theory and proposed that: 1. Adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained 2. Maladaptive behavior patterns tend to drop out, and only the fittest behavior patterns survive. These adaptive actions tend to be repeated and become habits. James wrote that “habit is the enormous flywheel of society.” Habit keeps the engine of civilization running.  BEHAVIORISM John B. Watson Behaviorism is the school of psychology that focuses on learning observable behavior. The term observable refers to behaviors that are observable by means of specialized instruments, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and brain waves. These behaviors are public— they can be measured easily and different observers would agree about their existence and features. Given their focus on behavior, behaviorists define psychology as the scientific study of behavior, not of behavior and mental processes He believed that if psychology were to be a natural science, like physics or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable, measurable events—that is, to behavior alone—hence the term behaviorism.  B. F. Skinner Skinner also contributed to behaviorism. He believed that organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for doing so—that is, their behavior has a positive outcome. He trained rats to turn in circles, climb ladders, and push toys across the floor. Because Skinner demonstrated that remarkable combinations of behaviors could be taught by means of reinforcement. Many psychologists adopted the view that, in principle, one could explain complex human behavior in terms of thousands of instances of learning through reinforcement. Reinforcement a stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response.  GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Gestalt psychology the school of psychology that emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns. Gestalt psychologists focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem solving. In contrast to behaviorists, Gestalt psychologists argued that we cannot hope to understand human nature by focusing only on overt behavior. In contrast to structuralists, they claimed that we cannot explain human perceptions, emotions, or thought processes in terms of basic units. Perceptions are more than the sums of their parts: Gestalt psychologists saw our perceptions as wholes that give meaning to parts. Gestalt psychologists showed that we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes depending on the contexts in which they occur. In short, we tend to interpret objects and people according to their context.  PSYCHOANALYSIS SIGMUND FREUD Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis is often the first person that comes to mind when people are asked to name a psychologist. Psychoanalysis is the name of both the theory of personality and the method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud As a theory of personality, psychoanalysis proposes that much of our lives is governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that originate in childhood conflicts. As a method of psychotherapy, psychoanalysis aims to help patients gain insight into their conflicts and to find socially acceptable ways of expressing wishes and gratifying needs. CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY 1. THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE biological perspective the approach to psychology that seeks to understand the nature of the links between biological processes and structures such as the functioning of the brain, the endocrine system, and heredity, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes, on the other Psychologists assume that thoughts, fantasies, and dreams— and the inborn or instinctive behavior patterns of various species are made possible by the nervous system and especially by the brain. Biologically oriented psychologists also study the role of heredity in behavior and mental processes such as psychological disorders, criminal behavior, and thinking. Generally speaking, our heredity provides a broad range of behavioral and mental possibilities. Environmental factors interact with inherited factors to determine specific behavior and mental processes 2. THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Cognitive - having to do with mental processes such as sensation and perception, memory, intelligence, language, thought, and problem solving Psychologists with a cognitive perspective venture into the realm of mental processes to understand human nature. They investigate the ways we perceive and mentally represent the world, how we learn, remember the past, plan for the future, solve problems, form judgments, make decisions, and use language. 3. THE HUMANISTIC–EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE The humanistic–existential perspective is cognitive in flavor, yet it emphasizes the role of subjective (personal) experience. Let’s consider each of the parts of this perspective: humanism and existentialism. Humanism stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the central roles of consciousness, self awareness, and decision making. Humanists believe that self-awareness, experience, and choice permit us, to a large extent, to “invent ourselves” and our ways of relating to the world as we progress through life Existentialism views people as free to choose and as being responsible for choosing ethical conduct. 4. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE In the 1940s and 1950s, psychodynamic theory dominated the practice of psychotherapy and was influential in scientific psychology and the arts. Most psychotherapists were psychodynamically oriented. Contemporary psychologists who follow theories derived from Freud are likely to call themselves neoanalysts. Ex. Karen Horney, Erik Erickson 6. THE SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE The sociocultural perspective addresses many of the ways that people differ from one another. It studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes Psychologists focus on the individual but believe that we cannot understand individuals without referring to their diversity, such as their gender, their ethnic backgrounds, and their physical condition The Clarks used a “Doll Experiment” to demonstrate that most African American children preferred to play with white dolls. Their research influenced the 1954 Supreme Court decision that overturned the “separate but equal” school policy that had enabled the segregation of race/ethnic groups. Social cognitive theory a school of psychology in the behaviorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior; formerly termed social learning theory. Sociocultural perspective the view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes. ETHNICITY One kind of diversity involves ethnicity. Members of an ethnic group share their cultural heritage, race, language, or history. GENDER refers to the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity. HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL PROCESSES 1.Scientific method an organized way of using experience and testing ideas to expand and refine knowledge Psychologists usually begin by formulating a research question (Our daily experiences, psychological theory, and even folklore all help generate questions for research) A research question may be studied as a question or reworded as a hypothesis Hypothesis in psychology, a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is tested through research 1. SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS -A sample is a segment of a population that must be drawn so that it accurately represents that population. Only representative samples allow us to generalize—or extend—our findings from research samples to target population 2. PROBLEMS IN GENERALIZING FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Many factors must be considered when interpreting the accuracy of the results of scientific research. One way to achieve a representative sample is; Random sample a sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate Stratified sample a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample 2. PROBLEMS IN GENERALIZING FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Many factors must be considered when interpreting the accuracy of the results of scientific research. One way to achieve a representative sample is; Random sample a sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate Stratified sample a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample METHODS OF RESEARCH  METHODS OF OBSERVATION 1. Controlled Observations The researcher decides where the observation will occur, at what time, with which participants, and in what circumstances, and uses a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group.  Strengths 1. Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability. 2. The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative (i.e., numerical) – making this a less time-consuming method compared to naturalistic observations. 3. Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained, resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.  Limitations 1. Controlled observations can lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect /demand characteristics. When participants know they are being watched, they may act differently. 2. Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic observation is a research method in which the researcher studies behavior in its natural setting without intervention or manipulation. -This technique involves observing and studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.  Strengths 1. By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting, studies have greater ecological validity. 2. Like case studies, naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation, it often suggests avenues of inquiry not thought of before. 3. The ability to capture actual behaviors as they unfold in real-time, analyze sequential patterns of interactions, measure base rates of behaviors, and examine socially undesirable or complex behaviors that people may not self- report accurately.  Limitations 1. These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class, or ethnicity). This may result in the findings lacking the ability to generalize to wider society. 2. Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way. 3. Highly time-consuming and resource-intensive during the data coding phase (e.g., training coders, maintaining inter- rater reliability, preventing judgment drift). 4. With observations, we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous variables), meaning cause-and- effect relationships cannot be established.  CORRELATION Once psychologists have observed the behavior of their samples, they often use correlation to try to answer questions such as, are people with higher intelligence more likely to do well in school? Are people with a stronger need for achievement likely to climb higher up the corporate ladder? What is the relationship between stress and health? Correlational method a mathematical method of determining whether one variable increases or decreases as another variable increases or decreases Correlation coefficient a number between +1.00 and −1.00 that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables  THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Experiment a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES -a condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed -ex. In an experiment to determine whether alcohol causes aggression, participants are given an amount of alcohol and its effects are measured. In this case, alcohol is an independent variable. DEPENDENT VARIABLES -a measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable -ex. aggressive behavior would be a dependent variable. EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS -In experiments, groups whose members obtain the treatmen CONTROL GROUPS -In experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the treatment, while other conditions are held constant Placebo a bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine Blind in experimental terminology, unaware of whether or not one has received a treatment Double-blind study a study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know who has received the treatment ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Psychologists adhere to a number of ethical standards that are intended to promote individual dignity, human welfare, and scientific integrity. The standards are also intended to ensure that psychologists do not undertake research methods or treatments that are harmful. ETHICS OF RESEARCH WITH HUMANS Ethic Review Committee, help researchers consider the potential harm of their methods and review proposed studies according to ethical guidelines. Ethics review committees also weigh the potential benefits of research against the potential harm. Informed consent a participant’s agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments Debrief to explain the purposes and methods of a completed procedure to a participant ETHICS OF RESEARCH WITH ANIMALS Psychologists and other scientists frequently use animals to conduct research that cannot be carried out with humans. According to the ethical guidelines of the APA, animals may be harmed only when there is no alternative and when researchers believe that the benefits of the research justify the harm (American Psychological Association, 2002, 2012).