Memory Chapter 8 PDF

CHAPTER 8 Memory 1 Chapter 8 Outline What is Memory? Memory Use for the Short Term Long-Term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval Structures in Long-Term Memory 2 Chapter 8 Outline If your memories were erased are you still the sam...

CHAPTER 8 Memory 1 Chapter 8 Outline What is Memory? Memory Use for the Short Term Long-Term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval Structures in Long-Term Memory 2 Chapter 8 Outline If your memories were erased are you still the same person?? 3 What is Memory? Memory refers to … The capacity to store and retrieve information Often analogous to information processing or a computer-based system on how it stores and retrieves information Our memory is dynamic and ever changing – our current experiences affect how we interpret our past memories Many different types of memory (with different parts of our brain influencing 4 Memories Implicit versus explicit memory Implicit = availability of information through memory without conscious effort (e.g., texting, typing, talking) Explicit = conscious effort to recover information (e.g., tests, formulas, directions given to you) Procedural versus declarative memory Procedural = memory for how to do things, the way you remember how to get things done (e.g., making dinner, riding a bike) Declarative = recollection of facts and events (e.g, what are those words again?) 5  Information-Processing Sensory information Theory STORAGE INPUT RETRIEVAL economics literature Information is Information is used taken into brain as basis of behaviors and interactions culture science religion Information gets processed, analyzed, and stored until use history math 6 Memory Processes Encoding = mental representation in memory based on information processing (sensory information must be transformed) Storage = retention of encoded information over time Retrieval = recovery of the stored information at a later time 7 Sensory Register/Memory Sensory Register/Sensory Memory The first stage of memory which is designed to briefly hold an image of each sensory experience until it can be fully processed. A memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief durations (~ 0.5 second) Auditory version of this referred to as echoic memory Not to be confused with photographic (eidetic) memory that some children may experience (virtually non-existent in adults) 8 Short-Term Memory (STM) Short-term memory (STM) refers to: Mechanism for focusing cognitive resources on a small set of mental representations Involves preservation of very recent experiences and brief retrieval of information from LTM when needed STM has a limited capacity Miller’s magic number = 7 + or - 2 Strategies for improving STM … 9  Example: Memory Test 5-4-9-8-6-2-8-1-2-4-8 try to remember these numbers STM Strategies Rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information repetitively Lack of rehearsal and interference related to decreased memory ability Chunking The process of reconfiguring items by grouping them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle (or patterns based on LTM) Chunk = meaningful unit of information – e.g., NFL, NHL, NBA Expertise can increase chunking ability (e.g., S.F.) 11 Chuncking Example OBTNCHCVNTCNSNC CBC HBO CTV TSN CNN 12 Working Memory Working memory Resource involved in tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension Foundation for moment-by-moment fluidity of thought and action & integration of information Three components or memory codes (Baddeley):  Phonological loop/phonological encoding  Visuospatial sketchpad/visual encoding  Central executive/motor encoding 13 Working Memory 14 Working Memory 15 Long-Term Memory Long-term memory (LTM) LTM is the storehouse of all experiences, events, information, emotions, skills, words, categories, rules, and judgments that have been acquired from sensory and short-term memories Involves the preservation of information for retrieval at any later time Unlimited capacity (but not all is from working memory becomes long term memories) 16 Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues The stimuli available as you search for a particular memory (can be externally or internally generated) Two tests of memory: Recall = reproduction of information to which you were previously exposed Recognition = realization that a certain stimulus is one you have seen or heard before  Recognition cues often stronger & more straightforward 17 Retrieval Cues Declarative memories differ with respect to cues necessary to retrieve them Episodic memories  Memory for things you have personally experienced Semantic memories  General, categorical memories  Not linked to specific episodes where memory was obtained (e.g., brushing your teeth) 18 Context & Encoding Encoding specificity Memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding Context-dependent memory improves recall Retrieval can be altered by the context and distinctiveness of the experience being recalled (contextual distinctiveness) Retention interval – a period of time which 19 Encoding & Retrieval Process Transfer-appropriate processing Memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding transfers to processes at retrieval Priming = first experience of an item primes memory for later experiences (makes it more likely to be recalled) Google search example 20 Context & Encoding Serial position effect Primacy effect = improved memory for items at start of list Recency effect = improved memory for items at end of list 21 Encoding & Retrieval Processes Levels of processing theory Information processed at a deeper level is more likely to be retained  Structural encoding = paying attention to the structural properties of words & how it looks (shallow)  Phonological (phonemic) encoding = paying attention to the sound qualities of words (intermediary)  Semantic encoding = paying attention to the meaning of the words (deepest processing) 22 Improving Memory Elaborative rehearsal enhances memory by elaborating on material to be learned Mnemonics Devices that encode a long series of facts by associating them with familiar & previously encoded information 23 Structures in LTM One key feature of memory is the ability to integrate & categorize experiences Concepts = mental representations of the categories you form Based on family resemblance or prototypical features Objects are best categorized at a basic level (hierarchical representation of concepts)  E.g., piece of fruit, apple, Granny Smith 24 Hierarchies of Concepts 25 Structures in LTM Schemas Conceptual frameworks, or clusters of knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations Generalizations that can be applied to interpret situations Using concepts in memory: Prototypes – representation of average member of category (e.g., chair – a back, four legs) Exemplars – categorization based on comparison to examples in memory (dining chairs vs. lawn chairs) 26 27 Forgetting “Facts crammed at examination time soon vanish, if they were not grounded by other study and later subjected to a sufficient review.” Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) 28 Forgetting Interference is when retrieval cues do not point effectively to one specific memory Proactive interference  Information you have acquired in the past makes it more difficult to acquire new information Retroactive interference  Acquisition of new information makes it difficult to remember old information 29 Forgetting Interference Theory Proactive interference 30 Forgetting Interference Theory Retroactive interference 31 32