To Be A Roman - Chapter 16 Public Entertainment PDF

Chapter 16: Public Entertainment Games, Spectacles, and Festivals Romans staged lavish public spectacles and events, called ludi or “games.” Usually they were planned to coincide with certain religious festivals. Not all public spectacles, however, were termed ludi, but there were many varieties of...

Chapter 16: Public Entertainment Games, Spectacles, and Festivals Romans staged lavish public spectacles and events, called ludi or “games.” Usually they were planned to coincide with certain religious festivals. Not all public spectacles, however, were termed ludi, but there were many varieties of ludi. Theatrical competitions (ludi scaenici) and chariot races (ludi circenses), for example, were actually “games,” whereas gladiatorial contests and triumphal parades were not. Three types of events were held during most of the major religious festivals. They were theatrical competitions, chariot races, and gladiatorial contests (which were often combined with wild animal hunts). In addition, victorious generals, whenever possible, chose to stage their triumphal parades during festival times. Although we tend to associate the types of large-scale public entertainment mentioned above with the Roman Empire, most of these elaborate events evolved from simple religious rituals performed in the early days of the Republic. But Romans loved holidays and before long the calendar year was filled with religious festivals, some lasting several days. Games and spectacles accompanied many religious festivals, but especially those in celebration of the goddesses Cybele, Ceres, and Flora, and the gods Apollo and Jupiter. The biggest and grandest festival, however, occurred in November in honor of the plebeians. The Plebeian Games, though endorsed by the state, were managed, administered, and oftentimes funded by the aediles. In this way the aediles, as elected officials, hoped to win the favor of the populace, whose votes they would need when they ran for higher office. Theatrical Productions Fig. 69. Th is ancient theater in Pompeii is frequently equipped with a temporary stage and used for performances today.  113  Roman theaters were free-standing, open-air structures. Seating was arranged in a semi-circle, and an structural backdrop elaborate towered several stories above a broad, raised stage. The backdrop usually featured three doors, which were used to represent whatever buildings or houses the action of the play demanded. Musicians played in a pit in front of the stage. In some theaters canvas awnings were spread over the seating areas to protect the spectators from the sun. Theaters were used to present tragedies, comedies, mimes and pantomimes. 114 To Be A Rom a n Tragedies and comedies were adapted from Greek originals and actors were men who wore exaggerated masks and Greek-style costumes. Plautus and Terence, who wrote in the middle years of the Republic, were two of Rome’s greatest writers of comedy. Although their comedies were usually set in Greece, they contained an odd mixture of Greek and Roman cultural references. Little survives of the most popular forms of drama: mimes and pantomimes. These were farces often based on topical and controversial political issues. Actors, wearing no masks, often impersonated and ridiculed contemporary public figures. Mime had speaking parts, while in pantomime actors relied solely on their movements, expressions, and gestures to convey their message. Both forms featured dancing and nudity. The “plots” tended to be racy and violent. One performance even included the actual execution of a criminal. Reserved and proper Romans considered mimes and pantomimes unrefined and obscene. Had they survived, mimes and pantomimes would have revealed much information about everyday life in Rome. Chariot Races Instituted by Romulus shortly after the founding of Rome, chariot racing was arguably the oldest Roman spectator sport. In the early days, Romans sat on the slope of the Palatine hill to watch races in the valley below. Eventually the Circus Maximus, the largest stadium in the Roman world with a seating capacity of 250,000, was built on the site. The racetrack of the Circus Maximus was oval, but the stadium itself was curved at one end and flat at the other. The flat end held 12 starting gates. Along the center of the track ran a long, thin barrier, the spina. At either end of the spina were turning posts called metae. It was here at the turning posts, where charioteers tried to gain crucial seconds by making tight turns, that collisions often occurred. Each race lasted seven laps, or approximately five miles. On the spina itself, lap counters, in the form of dolphins at one end and eggs at the other, were used to indicate the number of laps remaining in the race. Racehorses were provided from stables owned by four companies or factions, each identified by a different color: white, blue, green, and red. Spectators cheered their favorite drivers and horses, but most of them were fans of a particular racing faction. Fig. 70. Above is a reconstruction of the Circus Maximus with the starting gates at the rear, left and, in the center, the spina with turning posts at each end. Fig. 71. A model of another circus without the spina and with the starting gates in the foreground is pictured here. Ch a pter 16 : P u bl ic En terta i n m en t 115 Fig. 72. Th is mosaic depicts a victorious charioteer and his quadriga, or four-horse chariot. To begin a race, the presiding magistrate stood in full view of the spectators and dropped a American Academy in Rome, Photographic Archive large, white cloth, called a mappa. Typically, charFig. 73. ioteers, with reins tied about their waist and wearA charioteer, whip in hand, stands next to one of his horses. ing protective helmets, drove four-horse chariots. Inscriptions, however, mention as few as three- and as many as ten-horse chariots in competition. Depending on the number of teams each faction entered, individual races consisted of four, eight, or twelve chariots. There were usually 24 races held in a day. Charioteers were usually slaves who had everything to gain by taking risks. A successful charioteer often won not only races, but fame, wealth, and freedom. Gladiatorial Contests Gladiatorial combat originated in the early practice of offering human lives to the spirits of the dead. The victims were slaves who were forced to fight to the death at the tomb of the deceased. This practice soon became a popular feature of elaborate Roman funerals. People especially looked forward to those funerals that offered the excitement of gladiatorial combat. Before long, gladiatorial contests were presented as a spectacle on their own, without a funeral, for the enjoyment of the public. Fig. 74. The Flavian Amphitheater or Colosseum was expanded to include a fourth story and was richly adorned with statues in each arch. Until the late Republic, gladiatorial events were held in the Forum, the Circus Maximus, and at other places in and around Rome, sometimes in wooden or makeshift amphitheaters. Although the Colosseum was neither the first nor the only 116 To Be A Rom a n building of its type, it is certainly the most famous amphitheater in the world. Built by the Flavian emperors, the Colosseum or the Flavian Amphitheater was originally called the amphitheatrum Caesareum, or “the emperor’s amphitheater.” Because it stood next to a colossal statue of Nero, the building later became known as the Colosseum or “the place of the colossus,” but it did not receive this name until the Middle Ages. The Colosseum is also referred to as an arena, a name that comes from the Latin word harena, meaning “sand.” The floor of the Colosseum was covered with sand that was said to be pink from all the blood that was shed on it. The Colosseum was a marvel of engineering, featuring easy access to and from seats, unobstructed views, awnings to protect the spectators from the sun, subterranean storage areas, elevators, and trap doors. Its seating capacity is estimated at about 55,000. The spectacles in the Colosseum were an all-day affair. They traditionally began with an animal show, called a hunt, but which often included, in addition to hunting, beast fights, displays of exotic animals, performances by trained animals, and even the execution of condemned criminals who were either slain or torn apart by wild beasts. The main event of the day, however, was gladiatorial combat. Gladiators were usually criminals, slaves (especially captured fugitives), and prisoners of war, although some free men actually chose to become gladiators. They were trained in gladiator schools to fight with different types of equipment, and most fights paired light-armed with heavy-armed gladiators. The retiarius, for example, was a light-armed fighter who carried only a trident, a net, and a fourpronged dagger. A retiarius usually fought a Samnite, who wielded a short sword and was protected by a shield, body armor, and a massive helmet. American Academy in Rome, Photographic Archive Fig. 75. This frieze illustrates gladiators in training. Ch a pter 16 : P u bl ic En terta i n m en t 117 Audience participation was part of the excitement. A defeated gladiator could request to have his life spared. The crowd loudly voiced its approval or disapproval before an official decision was made by the person who had financed the games. If the defeated gladiator was unsuccessful in his request, he was killed and his body was removed, but only after two attendants, one dressed as Pluto and the other as Mercury, made sure that he was dead. Winning gladiators were awarded the palm of victory and a large sum of money. The few gladiators who attained celebrity status were granted their freedom and presented with a wooden sword, indicating that they were now exempt from participating in fights to the death. Triumphal Processions When a commanding general was victorious over an enemy of Rome, he had the right to request the Senate to grant him permission to celebrate his triumph. If the Senate agreed, the city prepared to receive the triumphant general and his soldiers with great festivity. Temples, shrines and statues were decorated with garlands of flowers and incense burned on the altars. The Senate, led by the magistrates, met the general, who was waiting just outside the city wall. He was dressed for the occasion in a ceremonial flowered tunic and an elaborate toga picta embroidered with gold. A crown of laurel wreathed his brow. He greeted the magistrates and the Senate from his triumphal chariot drawn by four horses. The triumphal parade followed a prescribed route through the city. At the head of the procession was the Senate, followed by trumpeters, carts laden with plunder, more musicians, sacrificial animals, exotic animals, military apparatus taken from the enemy, and captives. Following the captives and preceding the general himself were lictors carrying fasces. (Lictors were attendants who signaled the approach of a high-ranking public official. These attendants protected the official and carried the fasces, a bundle of rods containing a double-headed axe. The fasces served as a symbol of the official’s authority to bind the people and his power over life and death.) The climax of the parade, of course, was the appearance of the triumphant and resplendent general riding in his chariot, followed by his officers and his adult sons, and finally his soldiers with laurel adorning their spears. People lined the streets, throwing flowers and shouting Io Triumphe! (Hail, Victor!) The parade wound through the city and the Roman Forum and culminated at the statue of Jupiter in his temple on the Capitoline hill, where the general deposited his laurel wreath as an offering and where the animals were sacrificed. 118 To Be A Rom a n Chapter 16 Exercises: Public Entertainment Matching Columns Match the letter of the entry in the second column with the correct answer in the first column. 1. _____ Circus Maximus a) heavily armed gladiator 2. _____ arena b) official in charge of the Plebeian Games 3. _____ Colosseum c) barrier in the center of the racetrack 4. _____ ludi scaenici d) greeting for a victorious general 5. _____ retiarius e) word derived from the Latin word for “sand” 6. _____ Io Triumphe f ) symbol of freedom from fighting 7. _____ factions g) turning posts on a racetrack 8. _____ Samnite h) body guard 9. _____ toga picta i) seating capacity of about 55,000 10. _____ fasces j) dropping it was a visual cue to start the race 11. _____ mappa k) stables that provided racehorses 12. _____ aedile l) 13. _____ metae m) theatrical events often associated with festivals 14. _____ wooden sword n) gladiator who carried a net 15. _____ spina o) symbol carried by lictor 16. _____ lictor p) embroidered ceremonial toga seating capacity of about 250,000 True or False Indicate whether each statement is true or false. If it is false, identify the error and correct it. 1. _____ Ludi were often staged for public entertainment during the celebration of religious festivals. 2. _____ Theatrical competitions, chariot races, gladiatorial contests and triumphal parades were all categorized as ludi. 3. _____ Grand public entertainment events and spectacles, performed in conjunction with religious festivals, were usually religious in origin. 4. _____ Staging the Plebeian Games in November was primarily the responsibility of the aediles. 5. _____ The stages of Roman theaters typically had a backdrop with a door through which musicians entered and left the stage. Ch a pter 16 : P u bl ic En terta i n m en t 119 6. _____ The most sophisticated Roman theaters were equipped with canvas awnings that could be raised or lowered to protect the spectators from the sun and the rain. 7. _____ Plautus and Terence were Roman playwrights who are believed to have invented the idea of comedy. 8. _____ Many of the most accomplished actors of the ancient world were women. 9. _____ Fortunately, the scripts of many Roman mimes and pantomimes survive to provide us with important information about life in ancient Rome. 10. _____ The Circus Maximus had a seating capacity of about a quarter of a million people. 11. _____ The shape of the Circus Maximus was a perfect oval. 12. _____ On the spina, the long barrier that ran down the center of the racetrack, were markers that kept a count of the number of laps the chariots made. 13. _____ The most dangerous parts of the chariot course were the turns made at the metae. 14. _____ Each lap of the Circus Maximus was one mile and a complete race lasted ten laps. 15. _____ There were four stables, known as factions, that provided racehorses. Fans typically cheered for a particular faction much the same way as fans at sporting events today show loyalty to a particular team. 16. _____ To begin a race, the presiding magistrate stood in full view of the spectators and dropped a large, white cloth, called a mappa. 17. _____ Successful charioteers, usually highly trained members of the aristocratic class, were held in great esteem by society. 18. _____ The earliest gladiators were slaves who were forced to fight to the death as an offering to the soul of the deceased at funerals. 19. _____ During the Empire, there were strict laws forbidding the staging of gladiatorial combats unless they were held as part of a funeral service. 20. _____ The Colosseum was the first building of its type in ancient Rome. 21. _____ The Colosseum was built by the Emperor Nero. 22. _____ The Colosseum could hold as many spectators as the Circus Maximus. 23. _____ Typically, gladiators were equally matched and fought with identical weapons. 24. _____ Once a gladiator was defeated in battle, death was certain. 25. _____ The prize for each victorious gladiator was a wooden sword, the symbol of victory. 26. _____ When a commanding general was victorious over an enemy of Rome, he could request that the Senate grant him permission to celebrate his triumph. 27. _____ Triumphal processions began and ended on the Capitoline hill. 12 0 To Be A Rom a n 28. _____ The triumphant general, wearing full military attire with a plumed helmet, was carried in his parade on the shoulders of his lieutenants. 29. _____ As the general passed through the streets, spectators threw flowers and shouted Io Triumphe! 30. _____ Animals were sacrificed at the conclusion of a triumphal procession. Word Study 1. Ludus: A ludus was a game or contest staged or presented to amuse or entertain the viewers. Charioteers competed in ludi to win races. Playwrights competed before panels of judges to win awards for the best plays. And, because a young Roman competed with his peers and was entertained by learning new things, ludus was also the Latin word for “school.” What similarities can you find among the following English derivatives of the word ludus? ludicrous interlude collusion delusion illusion elude 2. Theater and Amphitheater: The English word “theater” comes to us through Latin from the Greek word theasthai, meaning “to see” or “to watch.” A theater was a building specifically designed for seeing or watching a show, usually a play. The shape of an ancient theater was a semicircle, with the viewers seated in a curve facing the flat stage before them. The prefix “amphi-“ also comes from Greek and means “both” or “around.” If we place two semicircular theaters back-to-back or stage-to-stage, the shape becomes a circle, an amphitheater, a theater on both sides. The Greek prefix “amphi-“ became the Latin “ambi.” What similarities can you find among the following English derivatives of the Greek “amphi-“ or the Latin “ambi-?” amphibian ambidextrous ambivalence Ch a pter 16 : P u bl ic En terta i n m en t 121 3. Circus Maximus: The word “circus” comes from the Greek word kirkos, a circle. And a circus is a ring-shaped area for contests and performances. The largest circus in the ancient world was the Circus Maximus. In the late 18th century, the word “circus” was applied to traveling shows featuring animals and daredevil performers. These shows were performed in a tent that had a ring in the center where the action took place. Eventually some traveling shows became so large that they were known as “three-ring circuses.” Explain what the following words have to do with a circle. circuit circuitous circumspect circumference 4. Mime and Pantomime: The word “mime” comes from the Greek word mimos, an imitator. A mime was the name of both the type of performance and the actor himself. And so a mime (the actor) performed a mime (the type of performance). In imitating another person or character, a mime relied primarily on actions and gestures, although he sometimes used words and sounds. A pantomime, on the other hand, traditionally used no sounds or words in his imitation. The Greek prefix pant means “of all.” And so a pantomime was “an imitator of all.” Explain the meaning of the following words derived from mimos or pan (all). mimic mimeograph panacea panorama 5. Fasces The fasces, a bundle of rods containing a double-headed axe, were carried by lictors. Fasces symbolized the power and authority of public officials over the people. This symbol, often depicted in ancient art, was revived in the early decades of the twentieth century when Mussolini assumed control of Italy. His movement was called “fascism” and his rule was characterized by strong governmental control over the people. What does the English word “fascicle” mean and how is it related to the fasces? 12 2 To Be A Rom a n For Discussion 1. What sort of theatrical competitions are held today? Are you aware of any dramatic performances or reenactments associated with religious holidays or festivals? 2. Research the seating capacity of large sports arenas today. How many can hold 250,000 spectators? 3. Chariot races were dangerous for the participants. Collisions occurred frequently. What kind of races or competitions that exist today can rival the experience of watching a chariot race? 4. Why do you think it was more exciting for the ancient Romans to watch gladiatorial combat between fi ghters with diff erent kinds of weapons and armor? 5. Have you ever seen a “ticker-tape” parade? Research who has received this honor in American history and compare and contrast a famous “ticker-tape” parade with a triumphal procession.