The Coughing Calves Past Paper

Part 1 discussion Tuesday, October 10, 2023 8:57 AM Main themes Housing Yorkshire boarding Pros Cons Overlapping boards allows air to enter Protective Rots quickly Ventilation depends on wind movement Lack of insulation? Little light transmission Gaps allow rain and snow to enter which may dampen th...

Part 1 discussion Tuesday, October 10, 2023 8:57 AM Main themes Housing Yorkshire boarding Pros Cons Overlapping boards allows air to enter Protective Rots quickly Ventilation depends on wind movement Lack of insulation? Little light transmission Gaps allow rain and snow to enter which may dampen the hay/bedding Timber Cladding Another type of boarding Very durable Weather resistant Lack of gaps – better for insulation but worse for insulation, can use different substrate Requires regular maintenance Igloos Well ventilated Small groups prevents quick disease spread Chimney to allow ventilation Airflow and ventilation Will they have the correct ventilation when hot air rises Circular thing with fenestrations Bacteria like warm spaces Straw bedding and dust causing allergic reactions and respiratory problems – not cleared out, ammonia and stack affect Types of substrate – which is the best? Cost effectiveness vs animal welfare? Humidity Negative effects on animal health: enhances survival of micro-organisms, makes infections more likely reacts with ammonia to form ammonium hydroxide can affect skin health (dermatitis) Wetter litter, decreasing environmental comfort and behavioural enrichment Parasitic Control Lungworm How is lungworm treated? What are the preventative ways of minimising infection? Name for bovine lungworm parasite = dictyocaulus viviparus Can vaccinate against – is this not done due to legislation? Other treatment option: anthelmintics (aka dewormers) Lungworm causes reduction in milk production The Coughing Calves Page 1 Lungworm causes reduction in milk production Assess cell count to determine quality to sell Route of transmission: eat grass that is contaminated with infective larvae passed out in faeces of other animals Favourable conditions: damp + warm Ventilation Minimum ventilation rate: 2m3/s/ton of food consumed/day Types of substrate Stack affect Dust extracted straw Sand Methods of feeding and cross contamination Feeding 15 calves share water trough, 30 share hay trough Cross contamination of disease What are the recommendations Recognizable symptoms of lungworm Coughing and respiratory distress Tachyponea Professionalism GDPR 2018 Livestock Disease Control Regulations 2017 Client confidentiality – should the vet give advice to customer? Is it the responsibility of the vet to protect public health? What are the guidelines? Working together with vet doesn't break confidentiality Should we be discussing outbreaks of disease in public settings? COSHH The difference of organic farming Cows maybe more susceptible to disease Treatment plans may vary Welfare Pen size 1.5m squared per calf minimum (stocking density) - calves in case study have 1.6m squared each The Coughing Calves Page 2 each Pathology/epidemiology How does lungworm infect the host? Cow ingests larvae from grass – larvae matures in lungs Mature parasites are coughed up and re-swallowed Asymptomatic in most cats – does the farmer have cats/working dogs? Testing for lungworm – stool samples Pasteurella multocida can be a cause of pneumonia Why might we not suspect pneumonia in heifers? Strength of immune system? Animals exposed to lungworms develop resistance to reinfection How to confirm lungworm infection and pneumonia Test faeces Sample blood? Wheezing? https://www.cattleparasites.org.uk/app/uploads/2018/04/Control-oflungworm-in-cattle.pdf The Coughing Calves Page 3 Unknown Terms/Dictionary Thursday, November 09, 2023 1:08 PM Auscultation is the action of listening to sounds from the heart, lungs, or other organs, typically with a stethoscope, as a part of medical diagnosis. Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting beef cattle in the world. It is a complex, bacterial infection that causes pneumonia in calves which can be fatal. The infection is usually a sum of three codependent factors: stress, an underlying viral infection, and a new bacterial infection. Creep feed ia a method of supplementing the diet of young livestock, primarily in beef calves, by offering feed to animals who are still nursing. Dam refers to a mother cow Dyspnoea is the shortness of breath Heifer is a young female domestic bovine that has not produced offspring Mucopurulent nasal discharge – secretion of mucus and pus from the nose Pyrexia - Abnormal increase in body temperature. Tachyponea - abnormally rapid breathing Wyedale milk feeder: Yorkshire boarding - Yorkshire boards are most often used for agricultural buildings. These boards are pressure treated, homegrown, softwood with a sawn finish. The Coughing Calves Page 4 ILOs Thursday, November 09, 2023 1:19 PM Animal Management List the commonly used individual and group housing options for young calves and compare the pros and cons of these options (Considering, for example: Financial cost, space required, infection control, animal behaviour, environmental sustainability, etc.). - Ava Identify upper and lower critical temperatures for calves and explain how calf jackets can be used. Melanie State the appropriate stocking density for calves in an indoor barn and suggest strategies that can be used to reduce stocking density. - Ava outlin Explain the reasons for the need to move towards a sustainable ruminant production. - Fi o na Welfare, Behaviour and Nutrition Briefly outline the requirements of the newborn calf (e.g. Feeding, housing, hygiene). - divya Summarise nutritional requirements of calves up to weaning age.- divya Appraise milk replacement feeding systems considering; replacer vs whole milk, method of delivery, frequency of feeding and volume of milk fed. - jenise Define growth rates of beef and dairy cattle. - ben Cell Biology State why ingestion of colostrum is important in calves and describe how to assess whether intake is adequate. Lily Identify the main type of immunoglobulin found in colostrum. Lily Outline the components of the innate immune system within the calves upper respiratory tract which help protect against respiratory tract infections. - tilly Explain the role of mucosa associated lymphoid tissue in the development of immunity to respiratory tract infections. becca Explain the effects of stress on the immune response. becca Agents of Disease Explain why there is likely to be a difference in the cause of an outbreak of coughing in older heifers compared to young calves. Matt State that the parasite Dictyocaulus viviparus causes lungworm in cattle and explain the role of vaccination in control of the disease. Matt State that vaccination may be used in the prevention of calf pneumonia (will be covered in more detail in clinical years). - tilly Introductory General Pathology Describe the gross appearance of lungs with bronchopneumonia and explain why the pathological changes result in disturbances of gas exchange. - Melanie Professionalism and Spectrum of Care State the current price of a dairy calf and describe the economic effects of calf respiratory disease. - gert The Coughing Calves Page 5 Discuss how you would communicate your findings and recommendations to a farmer and discuss some of the challenges that are faced when implementing changes on farms. - Millie Explain your responsibilities regarding client confidentiality, discuss ways in which this may be breached unintentionally and how to avoid this happening. - gert The Coughing Calves Page 6 Animal Management Thursday, November 09, 2023 2:43 PM List the commonly used individual and group housing options for young calves and compare the pros and cons of these options (Considering, for example: Financial cost, space required, infection control, animal behaviour, environmental sustainability, etc.). The commonly used housing options for calves are purpose-built portal frames, purpose-built mono pitches, individual or paired hutches, group hutches or igloos, general purpose buildings, lightweight structures (such as a polytunnel) and lowcost/temporary calf structures (such as utilising old buildings or covered bale pens). Individual housing of calves, either indoors or outdoors, is associated with improved calf health. However, group housing is encouraged for welfare reasons. They also allow for reduced labour input and space requirements, therefore reduced costs. Usually calves are individually penned for the first few days after birth to ensure that they receive adequate colostrum, then from seven days of age they are group penned. Isolation pens are important to reduce the spread of disease/infection and to allow for efficient treatment of a sick calf. Calves greater than 8 weeks old can only be kept in individual pens if a vet certifies that its health or behaviour requires it to be isolated in order to receive treatment. This is because pair/group housing soon after birth can increase weight gains and intake of solid feed. It also aids the behavioural and social development of calves, increasing their learning ability and allowing them to adapt better to new environments. However with automated feeding, farmers tend to group calves into large groups at younger ages. This is a disadvantage as it means sick or problem calves may not be identified easily. Additionally, calves tend to lie in groups in sheltered areas of the house which can cause a micro-environment of stale air and increased risk of disease. In order to avoid these issues, farmers should avoid using very deep pens and ensure good internal ventilation. Section 5. (n.d.). Available at: https://www.teagasc.ie/media/website/publications/2017/Section5-Calf-accomodation.pdf. ‌ hdb.org.uk.‌(n.d.).‌Youngstock housing – Housing systems | AHDB. [online] Available at: https://ahdb.org.uk/knowledgea library/youngstock-housing-housing-systems [Accessed 12:33 10 Nov. 2023]. ‌ Identify upper and lower critical temperatures for calves and explain how calf jackets can be used. Upper critical temp: 25-26 °C Lower critical temp: 10-15°C (0-3 weeks), 6-10°C (>3 weeks) Calf jackets: - No significant health/performance benefit - Fewer unrewarded visits to milk feeder - Raise skin temperature -> keep warm below LCT - Barrier to unfavourable env condition Ref: Thermoregulatory Responses and Performance of Dairy Calves Fed Different Amounts of Colostrum, Fernanda Lavinia Moura Silva, Evangelina Miqueo, Marcos Donizete da Silva, Thaís Manzoni Torrezan, Nathalia Brito Rocha, Márcia Saladini Vieira Salles, and Carla Maris Machado Bittar, 2021 Mar 5 (Accessed at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8001325/) Upper critical temperatures and forced ventilation effects for high yielding dairy cows in a tropical climate J. Dairy Sci., 68 (1985), pp. 1488-1495 https://doi-org.bris.idm.oclc.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(85)80987-5 https://ahdb.org.uk/knowledge-library/calves-in-cold-weather The effect of calf jackets on the health, performance, and skin temperature of dairy origin beef calves Naomi H Rutherford, Alan W Gordon, Gareth Arnott, and Francis O Lively (2019 Nov 7) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7200583/ The effect of calf jacket usage on performance, behaviour and physiological responses of group-housed dairy calves G. Scoley, A. Gordon and S. J. Morrison, 22 May 2019 State the appropriate stocking density for calves in an indoor barn and suggest strategies that can be used to reduce stocking density. The minimum recommended stocking density/air spaces per calf within a building are 6.0m3 for newborn calves and 10.0m3 for 12 week old calves. Strategies that can be used to reduce stocking density include: avoiding increasing humidity in the calf environment (ensure good ventilation and good drainage), using materials which are easily cleaned (e.g. smooth plastic), cleaning and disinfecting calf rearing equipment between batches, and strictly applying veterinary approved vaccination protocols. CAFRE. (n.d.). Calf environment | Dairy Cattle | Dairy business support. [online] Available at: https://www.cafre.ac.uk/businesssupport/agriculture/dairy/dairying-technical-support/calf-environment/. Accessed 12:51 10/11/23 ‌ Outline considerations for sustainable cattle production. Cattle farming is a primary driver of major environmental destruction: from deforestation of lands for cattle grazing and raising crops (which are mostly fed to livestock), to overuse of land and water, and water pollution in the form of manure and nitrogen runoff. In terms of water use, eating one quarter-pound hamburger is the equivalent of taking a month’s worth of showers. Cattle farming’s greenhouse gas emissions, including its deforestation practices, contribute significantly to climate change. Cow Farm: What Is It and Why Are Cow Farms Bad? | FFAC (ffacoalition.org) Explain the reasons for the need to move towards a sustainable ruminant production. Ruminants have served and will continue to serve a valuable role in sustainable agricultural systems. - They are particularly useful in converting vast renewable resources from rangeland, pasture, and crop residues or other by-products into food edible for humans. With ruminants, land that is too poor or erodible to cultivate becomes productive. - Nutrients in by-products are utilized and do not become a waste-disposal problem. The need to maintain ruminants to utilize these humanly inedible foodstuffs and convert them into high-quality foods for human consumption has been a characteristic of advanced societies for several thousand years. - Ruminant livestock production is entirely consistent with proper agronomy practices in which forages are grown on 25% of arable land to minimize water and soil erosion. (Growing the forages feeing the animals can help to minimize water and soil erosion) - It is anticipated that there will be increasing demand for ruminant proteins in the future. Increasing productivity per animal dilutes out the nutritional and environmental costs of maintenance and rearing dairy animals up to production. The sustainable intensification of ruminant production, under limited natural and economic resources, could satisfy food safety and security, thus improving human health while protecting the environment. - Greenhouse gas emission intensity is reduced by increased productivity per animal; recent research has developed at least one effective inhibitor of methane production in the rumen. In fact, in 2013 FAO outlined that emissions from livestock could be reduced by 30%, in part by adopting existing best practices in health and husbandry. - The prevention of animal diseases can limit transfer of animal pathogens to humans and control the emergence of deadly zoonotic diseases at the animal source, where action is most cost-effective. Improved livestock management is an integral part of the “One Health” approach, which seeks to optimize human, animal, and planetary health. Sources： Oltjen JW, Beckett JL. Role of ruminant livestock in sustainable agricultural systems. J Anim Sci. 1996 Jun;74(6):1406-9. doi: 10.2527/1996.7461406x. PMID: 8791215. The Coughing Calves Page 7 https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/778414/1 -s2.0-S1751731119X71591/1-s2.0-S1751731119001071/main.pdf?X -Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjELr% 2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJGMEQCIHMmNACGOvIuU46AQ822tjW7xSj16YPQUhJZkEUJpQNPAiBUqmMgjSAH523Iqj% 2BSQt4rsgwEKiAJQoLq07z%2FF5z6Iyq8BQjz%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F% 2F8BEAUaDDA1OTAwMzU0Njg2NSIMPHBANzbzirwYQOENKpAFZzIdkldeaJaM93k1Wixkb%2BK%2BDrIQOw13u5OZH3ukUvdQWBu0T%2FMsF7LgagYICyZo% 2BN62c2etDG4UrCkFxSue4Nc0NWg201zZoVqoK1nClHBFsU38bQTPAbNk%2FyRiWVfRJZl2tL26zyQHXb0HnTAdDYDz15XAOn3gb4o4dxp%2B% 2FfjqSCHbIBwEb0D9d3ABLK9oAiq0c9PP13sJ54TIVnrc0BLF9LD%2FuPcA1TqJ7iWYQEcgb5Svs41r% 2FbYdE1TjXZGKeFGVy8e6rzAsN9yztomv1RYayGtNUiRp4Jnge0z2WbGHeOb0CDnnTDRbeE9DACfNzvUKzsFdUC743pyGFViKUZQBBToSwKId6QL4U% 2FHytGe4o1RfqDaNlHHdOpG4R9N0TiYlhEWPurt6SFY5zBnShxz38CVD3x1mxEsaNr4WZOzSZ%2B35LeH% 2Fi6M0gP7B9vHW1bPJr2Q4nsPUL6qxv7BbR6RSiTpLH2F6A3PclYcaYO2VhKIWIeucvECv9cekvc3eVJYNY%2FEsekzAsS7S43N% 2FTGlpIJkxYlZS3UC8LZVGBGeITLrgG4%2FRQoi2F5gc2LdGw60VZklK6HGRfjys04a0ia3SK6CrEYY8Q%2F1Q4uD8JhTDUxJKIn7ZAy8GPd%2F4onKMV2szD% 2Fr4XfO33YjlL5i3mfPt46813lxY% 2FQxMhZjsfABkuLxKjjUiXz9WE1S0U6rxUSvxJDnun2CZHTFLCyZCqpcRCLM1CrlwEswMA2udsAI3GyBofajDDaoM4xFrbX4rxA6DwCbYmNpzPu1ULqUXGcz7b% 2Bb0q9S5oLexIInVEX8rjxJ85%2Fepzg9icTG9vG6KgESO9aoD2uAqiXRMXrcwusC8% 2BgvjrJMwlIe2TCTseAAwgN25qgY6sgHW8v63XjyWMtzZfJk9uBeGYYUgnOxCmuVA3AASNdCIZSQr7romKqeSij6jqk4FyBXpaFaRyfofWipviM6RSaE911AaK9Q5 94RU xYFErBqdQxtNIxN1y5Eer0YfxpxzdXqIY6ToWTduIM0C7w3p9zaLpYXWLDxIdexC7JjVVhUAlmPf%2Bz0uzXCtAQ8XT4Krc7G688giPdsD% 2BryEu116jlHn7BJj1x40Xj7lNLTSdCyVEGgH&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20231110T182517Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-AmzExpires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYSTDAJQFF%2F20231110%2Fus -east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-AmzSignature=af988136d210a678f99af263aa7e89a757f2e9a1be186c08d571e3c931565baa&hash= 8417b46c1b83dd62a63b90ebab9b5a51740bd0cdfc9522800620a7636b48c16b&host= 68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S1751731119001071&tid=spdf -5e54c6b8-160e-402b-8947-2bab70d12109 &sid=522b88cc1229d94ba58afac2dc358931db2egxrqb&type=client&ua=1d06565357575651575b&rr=824056542b0b889e&cc=gb Broderick GA. Review: Optimizing ruminant conversion of feed protein to human food protein. Animal. 2018 Aug;12(8):1722-1734. doi: 10.1017/S1751731117002592. Epub 2017 Nov 20. PMID: 29151400. Health for animals three ways livestock farming is becoming more sustainable | (2023) HealthforAnimals. Available at: https://www.healthforanimals.org/resources/newsletter/articles/three-ways-livestock-farming-is-becoming-more-sustainable/ (Accessed: 11 November 2023). Giuseppe Pulina, Ana Helena， Dias Francesconi, Bruno Stefanon, Agostino Sevi, Luigi Calamari, NicolaLacetera, Vittorio Dell’Orto, Fabio Pilla, Paolo Ajmone Marsan, Marcello Mele, Filippo Rossi, GiuseppeBertoni, Gianni Matteo Crovetto & Bruno Ronchi (2017) Sustainable ruminant production to help feed the planet, Italian Journal of Animal Science, 16:1, 140-171, DOI: 10.1080/1828051X.2016.1260500 World Bank Group (2023) Moving towards sustainability: The livestock sector and the World Bank, World Bank. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/moving-towards-sustainability-the-livestock-sector-and-the-world-bank (Accessed: 11 November 2023) The Coughing Calves Page 8 Welfare, Behaviour and Nutrition Thursday, November 09, 2023 2:43 PM Briefly outline the requirements of the new-born calf (e.g. Feeding, housing, hygeine). - divya feeding: receives colostrum within 6 hours of birth housing: usually removed from mother to join other calves in rearing pens with 48 hours hygiene: regularly clean feeding and housing equipment Summarise nutritional requirements of calves up to weaning age.- divya hygienic, fresh colostrum from healthy cows is the most important nutritional requirement for new-born calves contains antibodies and essential nutrients for growth calves are born without the antibodies they need calves' ability to absorb antibodies decreases over time, so colostrum must be given quickly milk feeding calves have either whole milk or milk replacer usually fed twice a day sometimes ad lib systems are used: this is when calves are fed with no restriction must always have access to clean and fresh water as claves grow they are given an increasing amount of 'starter' concentrate pellets starting from 1 week of age calves can browse from a few days old - grain feeds are essential for rumen development at weaning age once a calf is eating 1.25kg concentrate per day over 3 days - this is usually at 6-8 weeks old reduce the volume of milk given per day references: the bovine industry lecture the lactating dairy cow lecture ahdb.org.uk. (n.d.). Colostrum Is Gold: Feeding Colostrum to Calves, Lambs and Piglets | AHDB. [online] Available at: https://ahdb.org.uk/knowledge-library/colostrum-is-gold-feedingcolostrum-to-calves-lambs-and-piglets#:~:text=Colostrum%20is%20vital%20to%20the [Accessed 11 Nov. 2023]. Early Nutrition and Weaning of the Dairy Calf. (n.d.). Available at: https://animalhealthireland.ie/assets/uploads/2021/06/CalfCare-Early-Nutrition-andWeaning-2021.pdf?dl=1 [Accessed 12 Nov. 2023]. Appraise milk replacement feeding systems considering; replacer vs whole milk, method of delivery, frequency of feeding and volume of milk fed. Replacer vs whole milk Milk replacers: formulated to provide essential nutrients but generally have less fat and more lactose. Offer consistency in composition, are convenient and reduce disease transmission. Whole milk: mimics natural nutrition but varies in quality and requires proper handling to avoid contamination. Method of Delivery: Bottle Feeding: Allows controlled feeding and individual attention. Fosters a bond between caregiver and animal. Automatic Feeding Systems: Efficient for large-scale operations, promoting consistency. However, The Coughing Calves Page 9 Automatic Feeding Systems: Efficient for large-scale operations, promoting consistency. However, individual attention may be compromised. Frequency of Feeding: Frequent Small Feedings: Mimics natural nursing behavior, aiding digestion and nutrient absorption. Less Frequent Large Feedings: Requires less labor and may suit certain production systems, but may impact digestion efficiency. Volume of Milk Fed: Ad libitum Feeding: Allows animals to self-regulate; promotes optimal growth. However, it requires careful monitoring to prevent overfeeding. Fixed Schedule: Offers better control over the amount consumed, reducing the risk of overconsumption. However, it may not align with the animal's natural feeding behaviour. Wilms, J.N. et al. (2022) ‘Macronutrient profile in milk replacer or a whole milk powder modulates growth performance, feeding behavior, and blood metabolites in ad libitum-fed calves’, Journal of Dairy Science, 105(8), pp. 6670–6692. doi:10.3168/jds.2022-21870. Define growth rates of beef and dairy cattle. DairyWeight gains of 0.8-0.9kg a day are more than attainable on average, and should be targeted for heifers. However, this requires good animal management practices as well as quality concentrate/grazing. BeefIdeal growth rate of about 1.0-1.4kg a day, although this does require a high energy diet. The diet is also required to have a high starch (>33%) and crude protein (12-15%) content. However, this will vary slightly depend on breed, as some beef cows will be 100% beef, and some will obviously be a mix. Under intensive conditions, a beef cow can be finished by as soon as 12 months. The Coughing Calves Page 10 Cell Biology Thursday, November 09, 2023 2:43 PM Identify the main type of immunoglobulin found in colostrum. Lily IgG 90% of the total Ig in cows Transferred over the mammary barrier into colostrum Aids passive immunity by binding to pathogens and allergens Limits gastrointestinal inflammation (Hammon et al., 2020) Can neutralize infections (Ulfman et al., 2018) Reference list Dafoe, J.M., Wyffels, S.A., Parsons, C.T., Carter, B.H., DelCurto, T. and Boss, D.L. (2020). Techniques to estimate colostrum quality and the effects of cow age and prepartum supplement intake levels on colostrum quality and serum IgG levels. Translational Animal Science, [online] 4(Supplement_1), pp.S137–S140. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/tas/txaa121. Godden, S.M., Lombard, J.E. and Woolums, A.R. (2019). Colostrum Management for Dairy Calves. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, [online] 35(3), pp.535–556. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvfa.2019.07.005. Hammon, H.M., Liermann, W., Frieten, D. and Koch, C. (2020). Review: Importance of colostrum supply and milk feeding intensity on gastrointestinal and systemic development in calves. animal, [online] 14(S1), pp.s133–s143. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731119003148. Ulfman, L.H., Leusen, J.H.W., Savelkoul, H.F.J., Warner, J.O. and van Neerven, R.J.J. (2018). Effects of Bovine Immunoglobulins on Immune Function, Allergy, and Infection. Frontiers in Nutrition, [online] 5. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2018.00052. Outline the components of the innate immune system within the calves upper respiratory tract which help protect against respiratory tract infections. - tilly Innate immune system = non-specific Physical barriers: Hair in nasal cavity = filters large airborne material Specialised cells in epithelium of upper respiratory tract 1. Ciliated epithelial cells = have cilia 2. Goblet cells = produce mucus Goblet cells produce mucus. This traps foreign substances and microbial pathogens that are inhaled. The cilia beat and propel the trapping mucus up the airway. The mucus is then transported to pharynx, swallowed and coughed out. Pattern Recognition Receptors: Receptors that recognise if pathogens or noxious (toxic) substance breach the physical barrier of the mucosal epithelium Antimicrobial Peptides: Small peptides that often reside in mucus layer Functions: cytotoxic effect on bacteria and viruses, anti-inflammatory activity, stimulation of epithelial cell growth, tissue damage repair and immune cell activation (Osman et al., 2018, pp.141–155) Osman, R., Malmuthuge, N., Gonzalez-Cano, P. and Griebel, P. (2018). Development and Function of the Mucosal Immune System in the Upper Respiratory Tract of Neonatal Calves. Annual Review of Animal Biosciences, 6(1) Explain the role of mucosa associated lymphoid tissue in the development of immunity to respiratory tract infections. - becca Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, also referred to as MALT initiates immune responses to the antigens and pathogens found on mucosal surfaces in the body. These are known as secondary lymphoid tissues. More specific to the respiratory tract are the nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (protecting the nasopharynx and upper respiratory system) and the bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (protecting the bronchial regions of the lower respiratory tract on the pathway to the lungs. These lymphoid tissues in the airways play a key role in the handling of airborne microbes, stopping the progression of them further into the body. A‌basic‌outline‌of‌the‌process‌by‌which‌an‌immune‌response‌is‌initiated‌by‌lymphoid‌tissue‌is…‌transport‌of‌ antigens across the epithelium (usually by the specialised M cells) to be taken up by antigen presenting cells, for example macrophages, where they can be recognised by B and T cells – stimulating this rapid immune response. The Coughing Calves Page 11 immune response. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7150241/ https://microbenotes.com/mucosa-associated-lymphoid-tissues-malt/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780120884513500053#cesec1 Cunningham's textbook of veterinary physiology. Klein, Bradley G. (Page 722). Explain the effects of stress on the immune response. - becca Depending on the type of stress present, this can be beneficial or detrimental to the animal’s immune system. When stressed, hormones are released in response to the stimulus, which in different levels, can change the distribution of immune system cells. With short term stress (lasting for minutes to hours), stress can have immuno-enhancing effects on the innate and adaptive immune responses. This short term stress can inflict changes on dendritic cells, neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, as well as the production of cytokines. Long term stress, (several hours in a day for weeks or months…), or chronic stress has the opposite effect, suppressing the innate and adaptive immune responses, by altering the type 1 and 2 cytokine balance. This can lead to decreased function of immunoprotective cells and induce low-grade chronic inflammation. This can have further complications of making the body more vulnerable to some types of cancer, by suppressing protective T cells and type 1 cytokines. Overall… https://link-springer-com.bris.idm.oclc.org/content/pdf/10.1007/s12026-014-8517-0.pdf The Coughing Calves Page 12 The Coughing Calves Page 13 Agents of Disease Thursday, November 09, 2023 2:43 PM State that vaccination may be used in the prevention of calf pneumonia (will be covered in more detail in clinical years).- tilly Noah (National Organisation of Animal Health) recommends 5 prioritised vaccinations in cattle - one of which being calf pneumonia Improves cattle health --> makes them more profitable Calf pneumonia vaccination levels have increased over the last 9 years from 29% to 43% but this still leaves the majority of calves unprotected. (2022) Lovatt, F. (2022). Livestock Vaccination Guideline for dairy, beef, and sheep Sectors Go 2 Sheep Sector. [online] Available at: https://www.noah.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/NOAH-Livestock-Vaccination-Guideline-August-2022.pdf. Explain why there is likely to be a difference in the cause of an outbreak of coughing in older heifers compared to young calves. Matt Dictyocaulus viviparus is a viral infection, therefore older heifers could have been already exposed to the virus and have developed immunological resistance to the virus – this would reduce / prevent the symptoms occurring, so the symptoms are most likely due to a different cause. State that the parasite Dictyocaulus viviparus causes lungworm in cattle and explain the role of vaccination in control of the disease. Matt Lungworm infection is an inflammatory disease of the lower respiratory tract caused by Dictyocaulus viviparus. Lungworm infections in herds or flocks are controlled primarily by vaccination or anthelmintics. Oral vaccines are available in Europe for D viviparus. Two doses of irradiated infective larvae are administered 4 weeks apart, with the second dose given at least 2 weeks before the start of grazing or exposure to probable infection. Used properly, they prevent clinical disease; however, some vaccinated animals may become mildly infected to the extent that larvae are excreted, adding to pasture contamination and further infections. https://www.vin.com/doc/?id=11436227&pid=27848 The Coughing Calves Page 14 Introductory General Pathology Thursday, November 09, 2023 2:44 PM and explain why the pathological changes result in disturbances of gas exchange. Bronchopneumonia (aka lobular pneumonia) = affect bronchioles + surrounding tissue - Lower respitatory tract infection caused by bacteria/virus etc Gross appearance of lungs: - Diffusely firm and mottled dark red - - Exudative lesion originating at the bronchiolar-alveolar junction - (Neutrophils/fibrin/macrophages filling air spaces in bronchiole/alveoli) - - Red-tan discoloration and firmness of cranioventral areas of the lung - Serious condition: abscess formation in the cranioventral area - - Why pathological changes disturb gas exchange: - Edema and neutrophils fill alveoli and bronchioles Air cannot enter affected alveoli -> X ventilation Increased diffusion distance of air, decreased surface area of alveoli Alveoli is hypoventilated -> natural body response = pulmonary arterial vasoconstriction, reduces blood supply flowing in capillaries around air sacs, further reducing gas exchange - Prostaglandis and other inflammatory mediators cause vasodilation to maintain blood flow through capillaries surrounding alveoli -> non-oxygenated blood pushed to enter systemic circulation before The Coughing Calves Page 15 capillaries surrounding alveoli -> non-oxygenated blood pushed to enter systemic circulation before gas exchange efficiently takes place -> worsen hypoxemia Ref: Bronchopneumonia Diagnosis Using Convolutional Neural Network -- Mangineni Bindhulahari; Thota Lakshmi Shriya; Marni Ramakrishna Chowdary; Kalaga Mahitha; T. Pavan Kumar; Sathish Kumar Kannaiah, 2023 https://ieeexplore-ieee-org.bris.idm.oclc.org/document/10112695 Dermatophilus congolensis associated bronchopneumonia in an alpaca, Neil U. Horadagoda, Sara Biasutti, Marina Gimeo, Andrew Dart https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/vms3.213 An Outbreak of Fatal Bordetella bronchiseptica Bronchopneumonia in Puppies. AuthorsJ K ChambersI MatsumotoT ShibaharaM HaritaniH NakayamaK Uchida, 2019 ** https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702053184000115?pes=vor#s0850 Caswell and Williams, 2016 J.L. Caswell, K.J. Williams Respiratory system M.G. Maxie (Ed.), Pathology of Domestic Animals (6th Edit.), Elsevier, St. Louis (2016), pp. 465-591 The Coughing Calves Page 16 Professionalism and Spectrum of Care Thursday, November 09, 2023 2:44 PM State the current price of a dairy calf and describe the economic effects of calf respiratory disease. Current price of a Holstein-Frisian calf, according to the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board, is £45 per head Discuss how you would communicate your findings and recommendations to a farmer and discuss some of the challenges that are faced when implementing changes on farms. Farm animal vets today face a number of challenges when developing a farm animal veterinary advisory role. Communicating effectively with farmers and using good communication skills is key to overcoming these challenges. When approaching a situation where instruction and advice is needed, if the vet is educated on communication skills, the collaboration between a vet and farmer will be more effective and therefore a common goal can be achieved much faster (Atkinson, 2010). Communication skills vets can develop and educate themselves on include: interpersonal relationships the psychology of making changes motivation and learning styles the subtleties of facilitation and coaching Developing communication skills will in turn build a relationship with the farmer and therefore enable the farmer to trust the vet moving forward. The BVA journal on communication in farm animal practice outlines four phases in establishing a new relationship between vet and client. These are agenda setting, investigation, reporting and reviewing. Agenda setting This is the initiation of the process by setting objectives, considering the farmers goals with open questioning and listening. Investigation In the investigative phase, areas of potential improvement are identified, and data will need to be analysed carefully. Investigation should be assisted by use of veterinary knowledge and clinical acumen (well defined scientific thinking). Reporting When a vet produces a report to a farmer, the vet should consider what learning style the farmer would prefer. Advice given in a way that is tailored to the person being reported to will be key to achieving a successful outcome. Reviewing Reviewing checks that the farmer is making changes that is following the advice that has been given. If the farmer encounters problems when following given advice, they can become demotivated which may lead to poor compliance. Questioning and listening to the farmer will be essential for overcoming setbacks, as well as supporting the farmer by boosting morale. Monitoring results and analysis of data will reflect the effectiveness of any changes made (Atkinson, 2010). Here are some brief summaries of some of the challenges that vets may face when developing a farm veterinary advisory role: The Coughing Calves Page 17 Farmers needs are evolving and the Veterinary Surgeons Act does not protect the advisory role of the production vet The Veterinary Surgeons Act states that 'veterinary surgery' includes the following; (a) the diagnosis of diseases in, and injuries to, animals including tests performed on animals for diagnostic purposes; (b) the giving of advice based upon such diagnosis; (c) the medical or surgical treatment of animals; and (d) the performance of surgical operations on animals (Veterinary Surgeons Act 1966, 2020). There is no specific description of the advisory roles of a production vet, and therefore there is a lack of confidence in giving instruction to a farmer. There are numerous sources of animal health advice for farmers Farmers can easily access advice from sources such as websites or other farmers. The issue in this is that not all sources available will be accurate, and a farmer may not have the deceptive skills to determine the reliability of a source. Additionally, a farmer may prefer to complete their own research to approach a problem instead of seeking veterinary advice, which in some cases could have a negative impact on the welfare of the animals. Readily purchase of pharmaceuticals The pharmaceuticals that will be required in order to treat a case will be widely available to purchase elsewhere. It may be problematic to deal with farmers under timed pressure that will be inclined to prioritise the accessibility and affordability of needed pharmaceuticals over animal health. References: Atkinson, O. (2010) 'Communication in farm animal practice 1. Farmer–vet relationships', Client Relations, Volume 32, pp.114-117. Veterinary Surgeons Act 1966 (2020) Section 27. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1966/36/section/27 (Accessed: 11 November 2023). Explain your responsibilities regarding client confidentiality, discuss ways in which this may be breached unintentionally and how to avoid this happening. As a Vet you should not disclose information about your client or their animal to a third party, with the following exceptions: the client's consent has been given disclosure can be justified by animal welfare concerns or the wider public interest disclosure is required by law. https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/advice-and-guidance/code-of-professional-conduct-forveterinary-surgeons/supporting-guidance/client-confidentiality/?&&type=rfst&set=true#cookiewidget https://www.fsb.org.uk/resources-page/what-is-a-breach-ofconfidentiality.html#:~:text=A%20classic%20example%20of%20a,or% 20one%20of%20your%20employees. The Coughing Calves Page 18 MCQs Saturday, November 11, 2023 2:30 PM Animal Management Welfare, Behaviour and Nutrition Which of the following is not true? A) Cell Biology Identify the main type of immunoglobulin found in colostrum. What is the main type of immunoglobulin found in colostrum A. B. C. D. E. IgA IgE IgG IgD IgM Correct answer : C Agents of Disease Introductory General Pathology Professionalism and Spectrum of Care Discuss how you would communicate your findings and recommendations to a farmer and discuss some of the challenges that are faced when implementing changes on farms. 1) The Veterinary Surgeons Act protects the advisory role of the production vet. Is this true or false? a. True b. False 2) Which of the following is not a communication skill in which vets can educate themselves on? a. b. c. d. Facilitation and coaching Learning styles The psychology of persuasion Motivation 3) Arrange the following steps to establishing a new relationship between vet and client in order: a. b. c. d. Reporting Agenda setting Investigation Reviewing Answers 1- b 2- c 3- b,c,a,d The Coughing Calves Page 19 Part 2 discussion Monday, November 13, 2023 10:15 AM Stroage space creates a lot of dust – improvement on ventillation Separation of cows according to age good for prevention of bullying Younger calves more at risk due to development of antibodies Much easier to move cows together in one pen rather than separately Testing for colostrum – blood serum test in humans the same as in cows? BRD – 5 is the limit Cough = 2 points etc. More than 5 points = BRD case Blood samples from calf – is this the best way to check for colostrum levels? Hard to know if calves have been feeding properly, which method of feeding would be the best in this situation – should they be left alone? Farmer learning – support and teaching so the farmer can do it himself – prevents future calf deaths by recognising signs of infection Farmers have different views on biosecurity on farms – varied restrictions on farms Costs more money and system becomes less effective with calf loss – how many calves can the farm afford to lose? Sick cow is cheaper than dead cow Herd health plans? Implement a disease management plan using veterinary advice. TB testing – how often do we test and why? Badgers and transfer of TB, trading of bulls Badger culls – controlling infection Vaccinate against specific diseases that can infect cattle and people. Vaccination against lungworm is an oral vaccine Seek veterinary advice for any unexplained health problem. Develop a biosecurity plan to prevent the introduction of infectious diseases. Review all factors affecting the welfare of your cattle herd. Outline the disease status of the farm, identifying key challenges and areas of risk. Parasitic control etc. Provide a framework for disease prevention strategies, such as vaccination. Outline how existing issues are to be tackled and measured. Monitor animal health and productivity. The Coughing Calves Page 20 Monitor animal health and productivity. ASK AN EXPERT What antibodies prevent BRD – are they included in colostrum? The Coughing Calves Page 21 ILOs 2 Monday, November 13, 2023 10:34 AM Animal Management Explain how to assess the adequacy of ventilation in a housing system and state why adequate ventilation is important (ben) First off, the most important part when assessing ventilation adequacy is to try and view the system from the animals’ points of view. The key points to attempt to measure/compare include humidity, temperature and air speed, as well as dust and dangerous/infectious gases. Ensure to be measuring the air that’s actually hitting the livestock, and the air they’re producing. Can measure humidity with a psychrometer, air speed with an anemometer. Most important reasons for providing good ventilation: Eliminating noxious gases, draughts and stagnant air. Decreasing airborne dust contamination, as well as endotoxin and pathogen levels. In addition, ensuring maintenance of optimum temperature and humidity. Describe the stack effect and its effect on ventilation in a barn and outline strategies that could be used to improve ventilation in a barn (lily and tilly) Stack effect : Stack effect = the movement of air caused by thermal differences – creates a current of air Colder (denser) air enters at bottom. The air heats up and warmer (less dense) rises and eventually escapes. When hot air escapes, this creates a negative pressure within the building with draws cold air in at the bottom – this is why it’s a cycle Natural ventilation can save money : focus on mixing fresh air with current air New buildings should be designed for to catch wind during the summer and block exposure during the winter Shouldn't always rely on stack effect : Natural ventilation doesn't include humidity control, central areas of very wide buildings won't benefit from natural ventilation methods alone and low ceilings will not see significant airflow from stack effect Fan assisted ventilation may be required. Therma. (2019). The Stack Effect: How It Works and Its Impact on Your Energy Efficiency. [online] Available at: https://www.therma.com/the-stack-effect/. Reference list Fournel, S., Rousseau, A.N. and Laberge, B. (2017). Rethinking environment control strategy of confined animal housing systems through precision livestock farming. Biosystems Engineering, [online] 155, pp.96–123. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2016.12.005. www.dairyaustralia.com.au. (n.d.). Fan System Design. [online] Available at: https://www.dairyaustralia.com.au/ja-jp/farmbusiness/infrastructure/shade-and-cooling/fan-system-design [Accessed 14 Nov. 2023]. Clinical application The Coughing Calves Page 22 Explain the clinical utility of a bovine respiratory disease scoring system (zoe) In these circumstances, the implementation of a calf respiratory scoring system, like the one developed by Sheila McGuirk at the University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine6, can assist with the early identification of affected animals. When faced with large-scale BRD outbreaks,practitioners may consider employing antimicrobial metaphylaxis. There is little evidence in literature to suggest a break point at which to move from individual treatment to group level treatment. This decision should be influenced by a number of factors, including group size, severity of disease, new case rate and client expectations/management, while also considering the responsible use of medicines https://www.vettimes.co.uk/app/uploads/wp-post-to-pdf-enhancedcache/1/bovine-respiratory-disease-management-and-treatment.pdf https://www.vmtrc.ucdavis.edu/sites/g/files/dgvnsk5141/files/local_resour ces/pdfs/BRD_ANR_Brochure_Nov%202016%20FINAL.PDF f Outline what a Herd Health Plan is and the aspects that should be included in it (divya) a way of organising disease prevention strategies a means of staying on top of treatments, potential risks monitors animal's health and productivity The Coughing Calves Page 23 The Coughing Calves Page 24