Bio 101 Lecture Notes (PDF)

Buffers: tend to soak up excess acids and bases Homeostasis: body\'s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions Hydrocarbon chain: chain of carbon atoms bonded together with hydrogen atoms, common in lipids (triglycerides) Functional groups: add to the function of a compound Amino...

Buffers: tend to soak up excess acids and bases Homeostasis: body\'s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions Hydrocarbon chain: chain of carbon atoms bonded together with hydrogen atoms, common in lipids (triglycerides) Functional groups: add to the function of a compound Amino group (part of amino acid): compounds/functional groups containing a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair **Building organic compound**s Monomer: building blocks to larger compounds (example: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol) Polymer: macromolecule made up of monomers that are joined together (example: proteins, deoxyribonucleic acids, carbohydrates) Dehydration synthesis: removal of water from between small compounds to produce large, complex compounds Glucose and fructose have the same molecular formula but different structure Hydrolysis: the addition of water to a large complex compound to break it down into smaller simpler compounds (opposite dehydration synthesis) **Four major organic compounds (common elements are phosphorous, nitrogen, sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen)** Carbohydrates monomer: monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose and fructose) Carbohydrates polymer: disaccharides (like sucrose) and polysaccharides (like starch and cellulose) Lipids monomer: glycerol and fatty acids Lipids polymer: triglycerides (3 fatty acids connected to a glycerol molecule), phospholipids (glycerol and 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group), sterols (4 fused rings, mostly of carbon and hydrogen), and waxes (fatty acids and other hydrocarbons or alcohols) Proteins monomer: amino acids Protein is a polymer Nucleic acids monomer: nucleotides (the individual units that constitute deoxyribonucleic acids and ribonucleic acids) Nucleotides are made up of 3 parts: 1.) A nitrogenous base, which can be adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or uracil (U)  2.) A Phosphate Group 3.) A five-carbon sugar, which is deoxyribose for DNA and ribose for RNA **The 3 classes of carbohydrates** Monosaccharides: monomers to carbohydrates, simple sugars (example: glucose, fructose, galactose) Disaccharides: composed of 2 monosaccharides bonded together (for example: sucrose, lactose, maltose, these are simple sugars) Polysaccharides: composed of many monosaccharides bonded together (gives more sustained energy) complex carbohydrates (example: breads and pastas-formed by dehydration synthesis, starch, glycogen, cellulose) Glycogen helps regulate glucose levels Humans can\'t digest cellulose because we don't have the enzymes for it Cattle, giraffes, deer, etc. have enzymes to digest cellulose Lipids: triglycerides, fats, oils, phospholipids, sterols, waxes Function of lipids: insulation, protection of internal organs Lipids-fats (saturated) no double bonds between carbon atoms, carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen atoms, solid at room temperature Oils (unsaturated) butter, grease (cooking), whale/dolphin blubber/carbon atoms not saturated with hydrogen atoms, liquid at room temperature, has double bonds between carbon atoms Phospholipids: primary component of our cell membrane 2 fatty acids + 1 glycerol + 1 phosphate group=phospholipid molecule Cell membranes are composed of many phospholipids The phospholipid bilayer helps make up the cell membrane Membrane proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer Sterols: backbone for fused carbon rings with attached functional groups (example: steroid hormones, estrogen, testosterone, cholesterol) Testosterone and cholesterols have the same backbone but a different root Men produce estrogen, just in smaller amounts, and vice versa for women, and testosterone Proteins: amino acids (example: insulin, collagen, keratin, carbohydrates, tumors) Suppressors: amino acids (for example: tryptophan, phenylalanine, alanine, and lysine) When 2 amino acids bond it is called a peptide bond R group: the remainder of the molecule, which can be a single hydrogen, chain formation of atoms, and ring formation of atoms Denaturation: the irreversible change in the shape of a protein due to extreme temperatures and PH's Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA): nucleotides (the building blocks of nucleic acids), 5-carbon sugar (pentose), phosphate group (slightly negative), nitrogen base DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid Pentose: deoxyribose 4 nitrogen bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C), uracil (U) RNA: ribonucleic acid-single stranded/nitrogen bases Pentose ribose/adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine **Features common to all cells** Cell membrane (plasma membrane) Phospholipid bilayer Selectively permeable (can allow things to go through) certain things we don't want to go in the cell, certain things we do want to stay in the cell Size (of molecule/compound, things that can prevent passing through the cell membrane, specifically the phospholipid) Charge (-/+) Solubility (if something can\'t dissolve in the phospholipid bilayer it goes through protein) Phospholipid bilayer has a self-sealing property Fluid (mosaic model), says that the cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that is interspersed with protein and cholesterol molecules Cytoplasm: fluid-like material found in cells that helps maintain cell shape and helps suspend organelles Ribosomes: (the little blue dots in the cell diagram) involved in protein production (translation) and can attach to different organelles Protein and cholesterol molecules are scattered in the cell membrane When a phospholipid molecule comes into contact with water, the polar head turns toward the water (hydrophilic) while the non-polar tails turn away from the water (hydrophobic) Phospholipids are made of the molecule of glycerol, phosphate groups, and 2 fatty acids Cholesterol prevents the drastic decrease in fluidity The cell membrane is composed of many phospholipids Proteins add to the functions of a cell membrane The main components of a plant cell wall are cellulose and lignin Cell wall functions: provide mechanical strength, regulate volume, prevent cells bursting, and play a role in cell specialization Channel protein: enzymatic, cell recognition Glycol-protein: basis of immunity Transport protein: glucose goes through (important for energy) Prokaryotic cells: no true nucleus, have a nucleoid region (with DNA), lack membrane-bound organelles, have ribosomes, aka bacteria, and are structurally simple Eukaryotic cells: have a true nucleus (with DNA), have membrane-bound organelles, are structurally complex, and most organisms are composed of eukaryotic cells Lysosomes: contain digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes, are important in normal growth and development, and help to recycle worn-out cell parts The human body can take hemoglobin, break it down into amino acids, and then your body can produce different proteins Mitochondria (plural) Mitochondrion (singular) **Organelles of eukaryotic cells** Organelles: complex cytoplasmic structures that provide 1 or more specific functions with characteristic shapes Nucleus: control center of the cell, directs all cellular activity, contains DNA (contains nucleolus (singular, nucleoli is plural) (in the form of chromosome or chromatin), the nucleus is the large ball in the cell Nucleolus: small granular structure The nucleus can build structures like RNA (or transfer) "nuclear pores" The nucleus has a double phospholipid bilayer The outer membrane of the nucleus joins to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) or (ER) Rough endoplasmic reticulum: ribosomes attached to its surface, produce proteins, and instructions come from the nucleus (cells have a high number in digestive organs and pancreas) **2 types of vesicles** Transport vesicles (receives, processes, and repackages) are membrane-bound sacs that moves materials/cargo between different parts of a cell The secretory vesicle releases their contents to the cell exterior by exocytosis in response to extracellular signals Cilia: (can be found in your respiratory track) microtubules, short, numerous, hair-like, paramecium Flagella: microtubules, long, usually 1 or 2, whip-like, bacteria, sperm cell Plant cells don't have lysosomes Mitochondria (plural) mitochondrion (singular): "powerhouse of the cell", has cellular respiration, produces ATP (active transport process), is an energy converter, is an organelle for plant and animal cells, almost all eukaryotic cells have mitochondria Chloroplasts: energy converters, organelle unique to plant cells Chlorophyll: (photosynthetic green pigment) Photosynthesis means "light making" Chloroplast has ribosomes and its DNA Plant cells have large, central vacuoles Vacuoles in plants: large central, pigments, toxins Vacuoles in animals: smaller numerous vacuoles, mostly water, some dissolved solutes Vacuoles in protists: amoeba, contractile vacuole If an amoeba gains too much water, it can burst Paramecium: can self-regulate the amount of water in the body (single cell) **Non membrane bound organelles** Ribosomes: protein synthesis (rRna+protein=ribsome) Centrioles: in animal cells and pairs outside the nucleus, involved in cell division **Structures associated with cell motility** Pseudopodia (plural) Cilia (plural) Pseudopod (singular) Flagella (plural) Phagocytosis: "cell eating" (white blood cells in humans are phagocytic) Can dissolve in lipid bilayer: water, small nonpolar molecules/compounds Cannot dissolve in lipid bilayer: (must go through protein) glucose, large polar molecules/compounds Concentration gradient: occurs when there is a difference in the concentration of a substance between 2 areas ATP (active transport) occurs when transport proteins use cellular energy to transport substances across a cell membrane **Membrane transport processes** Passive transport process (doesn't require ATP) Types: simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion Difference: types of molecules that move through these processes Active transport processes (requires ATP): active transport and cell-mediated transport-exocytosis and endocytosis **Passive transport process** Simple diffusion: movement of molecules through the cell membrane from high to low concentration until equilibrium is established (occurs when concentration gradients dissipate across a biological membrane) O2+CO2-high to low concentration, no ATP required, equilibrium is established, kinetic energy O2 (oxygen)- cellular respiration, ATP is used for things like muscle contraction Osmosis (H2O) water only, movement of water through cell membrane from high to low concentration until equilibrium is established (simple diffusion) Solvent+solute=solution Solvent: a substance that dissolves (water is a universal solvent) Solute: a substance that is being dissolved Hypertonic solution: hyper (greater than) tonic (solute) when solute concentration outside of a cell is greater than equal to the solute concentration inside of a cell example: NACI (sodium chloride) Red blood cell typically has.85% to.9% NACI Hypotonic solution: hypo (less than) tonic (solute) when solute concentration outside of a cell is less than equal to the solute concentration inside of a cell Water always moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration Isotonic solution: iso (equal) tonic (solute)- when solute concentration outside of a cell is equal to the solute concentration inside of a cell Cytolysis occurs in human cells When a red blood cell with a 15% NACI concentration is dropped into a beaker with 20% NACI the tonicity of the beaker is hypertonic 1. Passive transport processes Facilitated diffusion: movement of molecules through a protein in the cell membrane from high to low concentration until equilibrium is established (doesn't require energy, requires membrane proteins) Iodine is an indicator of starch The human body must digest starch down to glucose Insulin binds to another protein to allow glucose to come in Glucose binds to the transport protein, and the transport protein changes its shape to allow glucose to enter the cell Glucose enters the cell cytoplasm **Active transport processes** 2. Active transport: (requires ATP, transport proteins) process by which ions move through a transport protein from low to high concentration ATP can help move molecules through a tight space 3. Cell-mediated transport processes Endocytosis: types (phagocytosis "cell eating")- process by which large solid material is taken into the cell Amoeba: single-celled protists Pseudopodia "false feet" Lysosomes secrete digested enzymes Amoeba can be found in algae Pinocytosis: "cell drinking" process by which liquid material is taken into the cell (same process as phagocytosis, just different material) Exocytosis: "secretion" requires energy Our bodies produce enzymes to increase the rate of diffusion Cuboidal: can produce different types of substances Secretion is a type of exocytosis Cells form vesicles to allow things to go in and out **To increase the rate of diffusion-**Stir, shake, heat (causes molecular movement) Dipole moment: when a molecule momentarily becomes charged Lipids: energy-rich compounds such as fats, oils, and waxes that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Substrate: the substance (reactant) an enzyme acts on Monomer: molecules that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form polymers Competitive inhibitor: chemicals that resemble an enzyme\'s normal substrate and compete with it for the active site Activation energy: the energy needed to get a reaction started Macromolecules: larges molecules such as polymers or proteins that consist of many smaller structural units linked together Melting point: the temperature at which melting occurs (0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit) Catalyst: allows a chemical reaction to occur and hastens it Polymer: long chain molecules made up of a repeated pattern of monomers Chemical bond: attraction between 2 atoms or molecules Active site: restricted region of an enzyme molecule that binds to substrates Adhesion: attraction between molecules of different substances Calorie: amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius Cohesion: attraction between molecules of the same substance Enzyme: proteins that act as a catalyst to accelerate a reaction Noncompetitive inhibitor: inhibitors that don't enter the active site, but bind to another part of the enzyme causing the enzyme to change shape, altering the active site Inorganic compounds: typically, don't contain carbon Glycerides: fatty acid esters formed from glycerol Role of activation energy in chemical reactions: energy needed to start a chemical reaction Role of bases in aqueous solutions: the base accepts protons from the solution The behavior of acid in an aqueous solution donates protons (H+) Nucleic acids in living organisms store and transmit genetic information Peptide: 2 or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis A reactant in a chemical reaction is a substance that changes during a reaction Fructose is classified as a monomer Triglycerides are least likely to participate in polymer formation through dehydration synthesis Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells Centrioles are found only in animal cells Carbon has 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons, and 12 mass units Hexose sugar cannot be found in a nucleotide Hydrogen bonding: where the property of water allows absorption of a lot of heat without large changes in temperature Oil is nonpolar and hydrophobic Covalent peptide bond: how 2 or more amino acids are linked together to create a larger molecule Tissues group in organs False scientific knowledge is based on experiences and learned behaviors Cell walls are a part of plant cells, bacteria, fungi, and protists 3 bluebirds, a colony of ants, a nest of bees, 2 squirrels, and millions of bacteria are classified as a community The number of protons can be determined if you know the element\'s atomic number Tissues: smallest functional units Organ systems: made up of multiple tissues