Synthèse Leadership.pdf

Leadership Porphyre Céline Leadership Chapter 0 – Introduction Course objectives Introduction to the major theoretical approaches, contemporary issues, and practice of leadership. -...

Leadership Porphyre Céline Leadership Chapter 0 – Introduction Course objectives Introduction to the major theoretical approaches, contemporary issues, and practice of leadership. - Understand the key concepts of leadership and their related theories - Critically compare and analyze different theories of leadership - Identity the key concepts and theories that best apply to real-life situations and problems - Design and implement effective solutions to real-life situations and problems based on a scientific approach - Communicate one’s point of view and confront it with others The individual exam (80%; 16 points) aims at assessing your understanding of the key concepts of the course and your critical-thinking approach to real-life situations Multiple Choice Questionnaire - Approx. 30 questions - Correction for guessing Short open-ended Questions and quizzes - Short case(s) - Short to medium-sized answers All answers are assessed and marked for evaluation Individual assignments (20%; 4 points) Teaching Leadership « Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other » John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States Contemporary organizations operate in environments characterized by rapid change and increasing complexity. As a consequence, the education of leaders who are able to navigate and perform in these dynamic and multifaceted environments has become a top priority In the US, approx. 25% of the $50 billion spent in learning and development is targeted at leadership development In a survey of 5,561 executives in 109 countries, leadership development has been coined as the most important HRM priority for organizations around the world 1 Leadership Porphyre Céline However, the study and practice of leadership is very diversified and subject to a crisis in terms of (1) supporting evidence, and (2) practical utility § Complexity of the phenomenon § High number of self-nominated experts § Practice is dominated by unvalidated methods and assumptions § The existence of industries and lobbies of leadership Given these high stakes, teaching leadership knowledge, skills, and abilities that are relevant for practice and supported by existing evidence is critical 2 Leadership Porphyre Céline à Evidence-based management is the systematic use of the best available evidence to improve management practice This means making decisions through conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of four sources of information: 1. Practitioner expertise and judgment; 2. Evidence from the local context; 3. A critical evaluation of the best available research evidence; 4. The perspective of the people who might be affected by the decision. To achieve this, we need to adopt evidence-based education and answer questions such as: § How new knowledge come about? § Where to find it? § How to critically examine it? This allows students to experiment and discover the different roles involved in management practice - End users – practitioners, managers, consultants - Researchers - Educators Actors around Evidence-Based Management 3 Leadership Porphyre Céline Becoming a successful leader requires a transformation of sorts: Achieving self-insight and self-knowledge § Do I want to be a leader one day? § What are my traits, abilities, and mindset for this role? Developing leaders’ competencies and related self-efficacy (i.e., confidence) § Can I engage in developmental activities that will help me foster my skills and confidence? Experiment and play a personal identity as « being a leader » § Who am I as a leader? § Which values do I want to defend? § How do I view the world, and how will I contribute to it? Hill (2004), Klimoski & Amos (2012) As such, this course will not make leaders out of you or give you all the recipes and magical formulas to be a great leader. But this course will invite you to start your journey as a leader and help you understand the processes of leaders and followers at work. In The Lives of Leaders 4 Leadership Porphyre Céline What is leadership? Leadership is a captivating idea § What makes a good leader? § How to become an effective leader? Leadership is a universal activity both among humans and animals. Leadership is apparent in all writings, like in classical Western (Plato, Aristotle) or eastern writings (e.g., Sun Tzu). Why do we need leadership? Leadership is functional in organizations for a variety of reasons At the supervisory level: - Complement organizational systems - Resolve complex tasks and social problems At the strategic level: - Direct and guide organizational and human resources - Orient toward strategic objectives - Ensure that organizational functions are aligned with the environment A leader is a « completer » who does or gets done whatever is not being adequately handled by a group (McGrath, 1962) Katz & Kahn (1978), Lord (1977), Morgeson (2005), Morgeson et al. (2010) Although leadership seems easy to identify in practice, it is very difficult to define To date, there is no specific and widely accepted definition of leadership. There are many definitions of what leadership is and provide an interesting view of many societal and organizational trends. There are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are leadership theories — and there are almost as many theories of leadership as there are psychologists working in the field. Fred Fiedler (1971) The evolution of leadership definitions 1900–1929 Leadership is defined as control and centralization of power. Domination is a central theme of leadership. « The ability to impress the will of the leader on those led and [to] induce obedience, respect, loyalty, and cooperation » Moore, 1927, p. 124 5 Leadership Porphyre Céline 1930s Leadership is seen as a trait that people possess or not. Leaders are born, not made. Leadership is rather seen as influence than domination. The first ideas that leadership is the interaction of an individual’s specific personality traits with those of a group emerged at that time. 1940s The group dimension of leadership is at the forefront. Leadership is seen as the behavior of an individual in directing group activities (Hemphill, 1949). Emergence of behavioral approaches: Leadership can be learned! First distinctions between influence/persuasion (leadership) and coercion (drivership) (Copeland, 1942) 1950s Three themes dominated leadership definitions: 1. Continuance of group theory – what leaders do in groups 2. Emergence of contingency and situational theories of leadership 3. Leadership as relationship that develops shared goals 4. Effectiveness – the ability to influence overall group effectiveness 1960s During this period, the behavioral approach of leadership was dominant For instance, Seeman (1960) described leadership as « acts by persons which influence other persons in a shared direction » (p. 53) 1970s The focus on the group dynamics gave way to the organizational behavior approach Leadership is viewed as « initiating and maintaining groups or organizations to accomplish group or organizational goals » (Rost, 1991, p. 59). Burn’s (1978) definition during this period was one of the most influential: Leadership is the reciprocal process of mobilizing people with certain motives and values, various economic, political, and other resources, in a context of competition and conflict, in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by both leaders and followers. 1980s In the 1980s, research on leadership substantially increased, gained public attention, and was recognized as a scientific field. Several definitions emphasized different aspects of leadership: - Do as the leader wishes 6 Leadership Porphyre Céline - Influence - Traits - Transformation 1990s Research on leadership is both consolidating and diversifying: § The difference between leadership and management is emerging § Understanding of leadership as a process § Focus on followers and their perceptions Specific approaches emerged in line with these developments: - Servant leadership - Followership - Adaptive leadership The 21st Century Emergence of moral approaches to leadership: Authentic leadership Ethical leadership Spiritual leadership Discursive leadership Humble leadership Inclusive leadership Also, following their inability to agree on a definition, scholars agree on the impossibility to find a common definition of leadership… 7 Leadership Porphyre Céline Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. § Leadership is a process § Leader-centric perspective § Leadership involves influencing others (key word: influence) § Leadership involves goal pursuit and attainment (key word: specifics goals) § These goals are shared by leaders and their followers § Leadership happens within the context of a group Although, it’s necessary to take the context into account, as some statements are good depending on the situation. Several distinctions about leadership Trait vs. Process leadership He is born to be a leader! She is a natural leader! These statements reflect a trait approach to leadership that: ü Certain individuals have special, innate, or inborn characteristics that make them natural leaders ü These characteristics differentiate them from nonleaders. Height, strength, stature, extraversion, intelligence, fluency. Bryman (1992) However, other describes leadership as a process: ü Leadership resides in the context of the interactions between leaders and followers ü Leadership is therefore available to everyone and can be learned ü Rather than looking at characteristics, leadership is observable from behaviors Kotter (1990), Northouse (2021) 8 Leadership Porphyre Céline Leadership and Power The concept of power is often linked with leadership, sometimes used as a synonym: - It is common to view leaders as powerful people, as individuals who dominate others (as seen in the early research on leadership) - How leaders use power, as a tool, intrigues people - Power is part of the influence process and is defined as the capacity or potential to influence - Power was once synonymous of leadership, but no more à power is now shifting to followers One of the most influential research on power is French and Raven’s (1959, 1965) typology of power bases: à Hitler’s rule in Germany could be considered a good example of leadership. Leadership and Morality Throughout leadership research, there has always been a debate: Leadership as a Neutral Process is a common perception for people. Leadership can be used for both good and bad things Most of the definitions of leadership treat the concept of morality in a neutral fashion (Rost, 1991). Leadership as a Moral Process. Leadership is about influencing others to make changes to achieve a common good. One of the most influential styles of leadership, transformational leadership, is based on this idea. Other theories heavily rely on a moral perspective on leadership, like Authentic leadership or Servant leadership. Bass (1985), Burns (1978) 9 Leadership Porphyre Céline Leadership and Management Leadership and management are oftentimes compared and differentiated. They have many similarities: - They involve influence - They entail working with people - They are concerned with effective goal accomplishment Many of the functions of management are consistent with the definition of leadership. But… there are also some differences: The study of leadership can be traced back to Aristotle The field of management emerged with the industrialization of our society during the 20th century The primary management functions, according to Fayol (1916) are: û Planning û Organizing û Staffing û Controlling Other scholars have also theorized the differences between the two: To manage means to accomplish activities and master routines, whereas to lead means to influence others and create visions for change (Bennis & Nanus, 2007). à « Managers are people who do things right and leaders are people who do the right thing » Leadership is a multidirectional influence, whereas management is a unidirectional authority relationship (Rost, 1991). Others went so far as to argue that managers and leaders are generally different types of people (Zalesnik, 1977). 10 Leadership Porphyre Céline Kotter (1990) Leadership as a scientific inquiry Leadership as a science Leadership is many things… but also a science. More than 100 years of ongoing research, with much ups, downs, and confusion in it. Of all the hazy and confounding areas in social psychology, leadership theory undoubtedly contends for top nomination… Probably more has been written and less is known about leadership than about any other topic in the behavioral sciences. Warren Bennis (1959) The science of leadership is the systematic study of this process and its outcomes, as well as how this process depends on the leader’s traits and behaviors, observer inferences about the leader’s characteristics, and observer attributions made regarding the outcomes of the entity led. Antonakis & Day (2017) Why do we need leadership research? In all areas, research efforts should be able to produce theory. A theory explains a naturally occurring phenomenon by identifying how variables are causally related in some contextual conditions. à In this regard, leadership research is still currently facing a big challenge in this regard Ultimately, a theory should be able to inform, and then guide, practice! Practice, on the other hand, is plagued by self-nominated experts and critical biases. Practice is also dominated by unvalidated practices that are still deemed useful but can be inadequate in specific contexts. Traps when thinking about leadership Trap #1: People think they know what leadership is, even though they never studied it. You all have been « reading » people almost all your lives. A “casual” or “expert-only” approach often lead to erroneous predictions. Thus, we need a systematic approach to improve our predictions about leadership – because leadership is a science: û Looking at relationships between behaviors û Attempting to attribute causes and effects û Basing our conclusions on scientific evidence This systematic approach is important in an Evidence-based Management approach (Rynes et al., 2017, 2018) 11 Leadership Porphyre Céline Trap #2: Make generalizations about leadership. Laws in the physical sciences – chemistry, astronomy and physics – are consistent and apply in various situations. Human beings, however, are complex, and few, if any, simple and universal principles explain organizational behavior. Two requirements are thus needed for valid prediction: 1. Our predictions must reflect situational and contingency conditions that moderate (i.e., increase or decrease) relationships between concepts. 2. Our predictions must reflect the presence of other variables that might affect or explain, sometimes indirectly, what we are studying. Systematic research in Leadership To avoid these traps, one needs an understanding of what systematic research in leadership is, and also because: ü Scientific research forms the basis for the concepts and findings of this course. ü It can benefit you for better understanding and criticizing claims about people behavior in organizations. To disentangle correlation from causation, only two research features can help: û Theory and systematic empirical inquiry û Research design 12 Leadership Porphyre Céline A brief history of Leadership Research The history and streams of Leadership Research are generally divided into 9 major schools of thought. Antonakis & Day (2017) 13 Leadership Porphyre Céline 1. Trait school of leadership The scientific study of leadership began in the early 1900s with the trait perspective. This perspective focuses on exceptional individuals who show unique leadership attributes. Leaders have certain dispositional characteristics (e.g., stable personality attributes or traits) that differentiate them from nonleaders. For instance, intelligence and dominance are two of the most cited leader attributes. à However, this perspective has received extensive criticism. The emergence of meta-analysis allowed this perspective to re-emerge and showed that both perceptions of leadership and leadership emergence were associated with Intelligence and Personality. Judge et al. (2002, 2004), Lord et al. (1986), Zaccaro (2007) 2. Behavioral school of Leadership In the 1950s, researchers began to focus more on the behavioral styles of leaders: What are the behaviors of leaders? How do they impact followers? Two of the most prominent behaviors that have been identified in this area are: § Consideration behaviors (e.g., supportive, person-oriented leadership) § Initiating structure behaviors (e.g., directive, task-oriented leadership) Blake & Mouton (1964), Katz et al. (1951) Stogdill & Coons (1957) 3. Contingency school of Leadership The contingency approach states that it is not the leader who is determining but: § Leader-member interactions § Task structure § Position power of the leader In other words, leadership is contingent on numerous factors considered as external or contextual. Fiedler (1967, 1971), House (1971), Kerr & Jermier (1978) 4. Contextual School of Leadership This approach is similar to contingency theories but broadens the role of the context in leadership: § Structure of the organization and hierarchical level § National culture § Leader-follower gender § Organizational characteristics § Crises Leadership does not occur in a vacuum and is always rooted contextually. Antonakis et al. (2003), Bligh et al. (2004), Liden & Antonakis (2009), Lord et al. (2001), Osborn et al. (2002), Porter & McLaughlin (2006), Shamir & Howell (1999) 14 Leadership Porphyre Céline 5. Skeptics-of-Leadership school This movement originates from very strong criticism of leadership research in the 70s and 80s: The validity of questionnaires, and the presence of implicit leadership theories. § Observers are generally motivated to understand and assign causes to the organizational phenomena they observe. § They are more likely to attribute leadership as a way of explaining observed results, even if those results are due to factors outside of the leader’s control. Eden & Leviathan (1975), Rush et al. (1977), Weber et al. (2001) 6. Relational school of Leadership The relational movement focuses on relationships between leaders and followers. Leader-member exchange theory (LMX) is one of the most popular theory of this movement. It implies: ü High-quality relations based on trust and mutual respect. ü Low-quality relations based on the fulfillment of contractual obligations. This movement relies on the assumption that followers make the leader and not the way around. Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995) 7. The New Leadership school Early theories of leadership were mainly transactional — that is, focused on the mutual satisfaction of agreed obligations. Bass and colleagues believed that a more emotional, purposeful, and visionary view of leadership was needed. § Transformational leadership § Charismatic leadership § Visionary leadership In this view, leaders are considered as inspiring their followers to transcend their interests for that of the greater good. Bass (1985, 1990), Bass & Avolio (1994), Bass et al. (1987), Bennis & Nanus (1985) 8. Information-processing school of Leadership The movement focuses on the information-processes explaining how: § How observers assign traits and attributes to leaders § How leaders are legitimized in the eyes of others § How cognitive factors are involved in leadership § How affective factors are involved in leadership Balkundi & Kilduff (2006), Lord et al. (1984), Wofford et al. (1998), Wofford et al. (1998) 15 Leadership Porphyre Céline 9. Biological and Evolutionary school This perspective is rooted in the hard sciences and focuses on the evolutionary processes involved in leadership: § Heritability of leadership § Genetical correlates of leadership § Hormonal correlates of leadership § Neuroscientific roots of leadership Arvey et al. (2006), Balthazard et al. (2012), Bendahan et al. (2015), De Neve et al. (2013), Diebig et al. (2016), Ilies et al. (2004) Chapter 1 – Leaders’ traits and attributes Leaders’ traits and attributes Certain people are born with special traits that make them natural and great leaders. « The history of the world was the biography of great men » Thomas Carlyle (1907) The very first scientific approach to leadership… The trait approach is one of the first systematic scientific attempts to study leadership during early 1900s. Attempts to understand the qualities of great social, political, and military leaders. These theories were called the « great man » theories. The approach is one of the most dominant across the 20th century. A dominant approach The approach dates back to Galton’s (1869) Hereditary Genius who emphasized two basic points: 1. Leadership is the property of extraordinary individuals who can change the streams of history 2. The unique attributes of these individuals are grounded in their inherited or genetic makeup. This view dominated the field until the late 1940s and early 1950s. Carlyle (1849), Galton (1869), Zaccaro (2007) Criticized… In the mid-20th century, the trait approach started to be challenged and discarded on the basis of some important reviews: § Criticisms related to the universality of traits. § In a major review, Stogdill (1948) suggested that no consistent set of traits differentiated leaders from non-leaders. 16 Leadership Porphyre Céline § These criticisms sparked the behavioral and situational approaches to leadership (see next chapters) Bird (1940), Gibb (1947), Jenkins (1947), Mann (1959), Stogdill (1948) … But still vivid In the 1980s, the trait approach reemerged following the use of meta-analytic procedures. It also earned new interest through the emphasis on visionary, charismatic, and transformational leadership. The concept of charismatic leadership catapulted at the forefront of public attention with the 2008 election in the USA: û Self-monitoring û Engagement in impression management û Motivation to social power û Motivation to attain self-actualization Kenny & Zaccaro (1983), Lord et al. (1986) … And in development In recent years, research on leadership traits started to focus more on social intelligence and abilities, and distinguish the traits related to û Who emerges as a leader – leader emergence û Who succeed as a leader – leader effectiveness Zaccaro (2002), Zaccaro et al. (2017, 2018) What are traits? Traits refer to a set of distinctive characteristics, qualities, or attributes that describe a person. These characteristics are internal factors that comprise our personality and relatively stable, unchanging over time. Traits foster individuals’ consistent patterns of behavior across group and organizational situations. They reflect a range of individual differences, including personality, motives, cognitive abilities, skills, and expertise. Geiser et al. (2017), Zaccaro et al. (2004) 17 Leadership Porphyre Céline An overview of leadership traits Overview of leadership traits This overview illustrates the wide range of traits and characteristics that were identified by researchers, and the difficulty to select certain traits as definitive leadership traits. 18 Leadership Porphyre Céline 19 Leadership Porphyre Céline Another way to look at it Five-Factor Personality Model Over the past 25 years, a consensus has emerged among researchers regarding the basic factors that constitute personality. These factors are called the Big Five. û Neuroticism/Emotional stability û Extraversion û Openness û Agreeableness û Conscientiousness Bono et al. (2014), Goldberg (1990), McRae & Costa (1987) 20 Leadership Porphyre Céline The Big-Five and Leadership In their study, Judge et al. (2002) conducted a major meta-analysis of 78 leadership and personality studies published between 1967 and 1998. Extraversion and Leadership Nearly half of the traits listed earlier map onto various dimensions of extraversion. Indeed, extraverts are assertive, sociable, dominant, and energetic, and they experience and express positive emotions. They seek out more leadership positions, exude confidence, and can articulate a compelling vision for the future. à Extraverts are also more likely to be successful as leaders and engage in transformational leadership. Bono et al. (2014), Hogan et al. (1994), Judge et al. (2002) 21 Leadership Porphyre Céline Conscientiousness and Leadership Conscientiousness is primarily associated with: ü Achievement motivation ü The tendency to be well-organized, disciplined, and dependable ü To have decisions guided by rules, laws, and principles As leaders, individuals high on this trait have: § Integrity § Have a clear plan for the future § Know how to set goals to achieve these plans § Persist in carrying plans Conscientious individuals tend to emerge as leaders but may be effective only in some situations… Bono et al. (2014), Judge (2004), Judge et al. (2002) Openness to experience and Leadership Openness to experience is one the least studied trait in organizational research. However, openness seems important with regard to leadership. Individuals high on this trait are curious, creative, and imaginative. Leaders with this trait are better at the analytic and problem-solving elements of the position. They are also more adaptive to organizational changes. Bono et al. (2014), Judge et al. (1999, 2002) Neuroticism and Leadership Neuroticism is strongly and negatively correlated to leadership: § Anxiety § Negative emotions § Rumination § Pessimism § Emotional instability Neuroticism has been negatively linked to leadership effectiveness, but not leadership emergence! Agreeableness and Leadership Surprisingly, agreeableness, which includes the propensity to be: § Altruistic § Cooperative 22 Leadership Porphyre Céline § Kind § Conflict avoidant Has not been found to be linked with leadership emergence, nor effectiveness. This result is contrasting with the importance of sociability and emotional intelligence traits. The focus is only on emergence and effectiveness. Sociability is still critical in the leader-subordinate relationship and related processes. The Dark Side of Personality in Leadership In recent years, there has been an increasing interest for traits that are linked to the dark side of leadership – called destructive leadership. Destructive leadership is defined as « a process in which, over a longer period of time, the activities, experiences and/or relationships of an individual or the members of a group are repeatedly influenced by their supervisor in a way that is perceived as hostile and/or obstructive » (Schyns & Schillins, 2013) In their dual-process model, Wang et al. (2010) suggest that destructive leadership is due to: û Failed self-regulation û Intentional behavior Judge et al. (2009), Schyns & Schilling (2013), Wang et al. (2010) Several personality traits have been particularly associated with destructive leadership: Judge et al. (2009), Paulhus & Williams (2002) The Dark Triad of Personality Clark et al. (2017), Judge et al. (2009), Paulhus & Williams (2002) 23 Leadership Porphyre Céline § Narcissists are grandiose self-promoters who strive for admiration from others (Paulhus, 2014). Narcissists exhibit an excessive ego and show selfish behavior. It is considered a sign of insecurity that manifests in overcompensation, which is actually a defense mechanism again such a negative view of self. § Machiavellians are master manipulators, pursuing a long-term oriented calculated social manipulation. Machiavellians are cynical and tactical, and believe in interpersonal manipulation as the key for life success. In contrast to narcissists, they do not need admiration per se. § Psychopathy is characterized by impulsivity, thrill-seeking, low empathy, and interpersonal manipulation. Psychopaths are unable to inhibit antisocial impulses and show high risk-taking behavior. The Dark Side of Personality in Leadership Above the existence of dark traits, positive traits can have dark sides § Excessively extroverts tend to behave in bold, aggressive, and grandiose ways and to overestimate their capabilities. § Excessively agreeable leaders tend to avoid interpersonal conflict and overly sensitive to others’ feelings. § Individuals excessively opened to experience might get easily distracted, have vogue ideas, and be too anti-hierarchical or anti-conventional. § Leaders with exceptionally high intelligence (i.e., IQ) can be perceived as atypical and outsiders, and devote too much time at resolving the problems rather than tackling them. § Exceptionally charismatic leaders can abuse of their powerful positions and manipulative skills. Judge et al. (2009) à Dark traits can also entail bright sides. 24 Leadership Porphyre Céline 25 Leadership Porphyre Céline An integrative view An overview of meta-analytical findings Born versus made? The born vs. made question about leadership is an enduring debate… But evidence from the trait approach exists: - Using meta-analytic findings regarding traits and leadership–and their heritability–Ilies et al. (2004) estimated that 17% of the heritable variance in leadership emergence can be explained by intelligence and personality traits. - Using a sample of women and identical twins, Arvey et al. (2007) found that genetics influenced both leadership emergence and factors that predicted leadership influence (i.e., family experience and work experience with leadership). - Among men and identical twins, Johnson et al. (2004) found genetic correlations between transformational leadership and personality traits. 26 Leadership Porphyre Céline A model of Leader Attributes and Leadership 27 Leadership Porphyre Céline Implications for practice, strengths and criticisms Implications for practice The trait approach is very different from the other approaches. It is exclusively leader-centric /!\ As a consequence, this approach is very straightforward to understand. Basic idea = what traits leaders exhibit? Who has these traits? à It explains why it is so popular among practitioners and the public. The trait approach is not interested in explaining: § What kind of leader is needed in a certain situation § What a leader should do, given a particular set of circumstances Instead, the trait approach emphasizes that a certain set of traits is crucial to having effective leadership. 28 Leadership Porphyre Céline The trait approach suggests that organizations will work better if the people in managerial positions have designated leadership profiles. Trait instruments can thus predict leadership effectiveness and Organizations can specify the characteristics that are important to them. The trait approach is also useful for personal awareness and development: Trait instruments can help people analyze their own traits, strengths, and weaknesses and can get a feel of how others see them. Strengths of the trait approach ü It is intuitively appealing! ü It has a century of research to back it up ü It highlights the leader component in the leadership process ü It offers some benchmarks for what we need to look for if we want to be leaders ü It helps identify leaders and select individuals Criticisms of the trait approach û The failure of delimit a definitive list of leadership traits û It fails to take situations into account û The determination of most important leadership traits is highly subjective û It focuses only on traits and not on leadership outcomes û Its usefulness for learning and training is very limited! Chapter 2 – Behavioral approach Leaders’ behaviors Leaders engage in two primary types of behaviors: (1) task behaviors and (2) relationship behaviors. The Behavioral Approach Contrary to the trait approach, which emphasized the stable, sometimes innate, characteristics of leaders, the behavioral approach focuses exclusively on: § What leaders do § How leaders act 29 Leadership Porphyre Céline By doing so, the behavioral approach expanded leadership research on: § The actions of leaders toward followers § The actions of leaders in various contexts Leadership is composed of two general kinds of behaviors: 1. Task behaviors ü Facilitating task and goal accomplishment ü Helping others to achieve their objectives 2. Relationship behaviors ü Helping followers feel comfortable ü Helping followers to collaborate and connect, get along with each other ü Helping followers with the situation The central purpose of the behavioral approach is to understand how leaders combine these two kinds of behaviors to influence followers in their efforts to reach a goal. Historically, many studies have been conducted to investigate the behavioral approach: - The Ohio State University studies in the late 1940s - The University of Michigan studies - Blake and Mouton’s (1960) studies The Ohio State Studies Based on the findings of Stogdill (1948) who pointed to the importance of considering more than leaders’ traits. A group of researchers believed that trait research was fruitless. They began asking followers to complete questionnaires about their leaders’ behaviors. 30 Leadership Porphyre Céline Their original questionnaire was constructed from a list of more than 1,800 items describing different aspects of leader behavior! Both followers and leaders were asked to rate their leaders (or themselves) on leadership dimensions. From this long list of items, a questionnaire composed of 150 questions was formulated – the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ; Hemphill & Coons, 1957). The LBDQ was assessed among thousands of people in educational, military, and industrial settings. Later, Stogdill (1963) published a shortened version of the LBDQ – the LBDQ-XII and it became the most widely used instrument in leadership research 31 Leadership Porphyre Céline The researchers found that followers’ responses clustered around two general types of behaviors, which explained 85% of the descriptions of leadership behavior Initiating Structure is the degree to which the leader creates clarity and structure for the team and the organization. Consideration is the degree to which the leader creates an environment of emotional support, warmth, friendliness, and trust. 32 Leadership Porphyre Céline The University of Michigan studies Around the same time, a group of researchers started to explore how leadership functioned in small groups. Likewise, they identified two opposite ends of leadership behaviors: § Employees-oriented § Production-oriented Cartwright & Zander (1970), Likert (1961, 1967) Blake and Mouton’s (1960) studies Perhaps one of the best-known models of leadership is the Leadership Grid from Blake and Mouton. Again, they identified two main dimensions of leadership behaviors: § Concern for production § Concern for people However, they went further by suggesting that the combinations of both created specific leadership styles. 33 Leadership Porphyre Céline In addition to the grid, Blake and Mouton incorporated two behaviors that incorporate multiple aspects of the grid: Paternalism/Maternalism - Focuses on a family-like team - Irrespectively of the work and tasks Opportunism 34 Leadership Porphyre Céline Implications for practice, strengths and criticisms Implications for practice It brings simplicity to our understanding of leadership. This approach is more descriptive rather than prescriptive. - Leaders can easily assess themselves and how they could adapt and change to be more effective. - Many training programs are structured along this approach. It provides the foundation to understanding how leaders can adapt to situations and people – see next chapter. Strengths ü It marked a major shift in the general focus of leadership research ü The basic tenets of this approach has been widely validated ü Leadership styles are combinations of the two basic leadership behaviors ü The simplicity of the approach makes it heuristic – it helps our understanding and judgment of leaders Judge et al. (2004) Criticisms û The way leaders adapt their behaviors to situations and people is unclear û Most studies rely on followers’ perceptions of leadership rather than actual behavior û No universal leadership style have been found to be the most effective (even the high-high style) and thus calls for closer attention to situations and people û This approach is extremely US-centered and recent shows that important cultural differences exist Behrendt et al. (2017), Dinh et al. (2014), Martin et al. (2012), Yukl (2003) Chapter 3 – Situational leadership Situational Leadership The best leadership style is contingent to the situations leaders are in and to the people they work with. Moving further than the trait and behavioral approaches, the situational leadership approach suggests that: 35 Leadership Porphyre Céline - Different situations demand different kinds of leadership - Effective leadership requires that people adapt their style to the demands of different situations Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership In the 1960s, Fiedler’s work tried to reconcile and unite several theories that emerged earlier – mostly from the trait and behavioral approach Basic idea = Leaders can be effective in a certain situation but not in another According to Fiedler, the situation can be described along three key dimensions: 1. Leader-member relations (Poor/Good) - How well the team and the leader work together/trust each other? - Leaders who have good relationships with their subordinates will more easily get the work done 2. Task structure (Low/High) - How well the input, processes, roles, and tasks are structured and clearly delimited? - Leaders who provide high task structure needs less authority to get the work done 3. Position power (Weak/Strong) - Do leaders have reward and/or coercive power? - Leaders who have reward and coercive power will get the work done more easily Example 1 An AI startup: § Colleagues get along with each other and the leader knows their strengths and weaknesses § Mostly creative and R&D processes § The leader is the only one at the top 36 Leadership Porphyre Céline Your favorite fast-food restaurant: § Numerous shifts, high turnover, colleagues are easily replaced § High standardization of tasks and roles § Powerful manager but less powerful team leader In Fiedler’s theory: Leaders have a stable leadership style. They thus cannot change their style to suit the situation. Two solutions 1. Change the leader who best matches the situation 2. Change the situation 37 Leadership Porphyre Céline Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model Situational Leadership Model Hersey and Blanchard’s model is one of the best-known approaches to leadership and has been refined several times since its inception. Like previous models, they suggest that leadership is composed of two distinct dimensions: 1. Directive dimension 2. Supportive dimension But, contrary, to Fiedler, they consider that leaders can adapt their style over time and must continuously assess the situation as well as the competence/motivation of their teams. Basic idea = Effective leaders are those who can recognize what followers need and adapt their style to meet those needs. 38 Leadership Porphyre Céline 39 Leadership Porphyre Céline 40 Leadership Porphyre Céline Key tenets of the model The model proposes several important mechanisms: § Directive and supportive dimensions are independent – leaders can enact both! § The combinations of directive and supportive dimensions create four leadership styles: delegating, supporting, coaching, directing § Followers move forward and backward along the developmental continuum – competence and commitment § Effective leaders have to determine where followers are on the developmental continuum to adapt their leadership styles Practical implications for leaders In a given situation, leaders have to: 41 Leadership Porphyre Céline Situational Leadership Model Fernandez & Vecchio (1997), Graeff (1997), Thompson & Vecchio (2009), Vecchio et al. (2006), Yukl (1989) Path-Goal Theory Complementarily to previous theories, path-goal theory focuses on the relationship with followers and the attention to their needs and motivations and was developed to: Explain how leaders motivate followers to be productive and satisfied with their work Contrary to the Situational Leadership Model in which the leader had to adapt his/her style to the development of the followers, path-goal theory emphasizes that: Leaders should use leadership style that best meets followers’ motivational needs – that is, what’s missing! The heart of path-goal theory suggests that for leaders to be effective they must « engage in behaviors that complement subordinates’ environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance » (House, 1996, p. 335) Evans (1970), House (1971), House & Dessler (1974), House & Mitchell (1974) 42 Leadership Porphyre Céline Path-goal theory is designed to explain how leaders can help followers along the path to their goals by selecting specific behaviors that are best suited to followers’ needs & the situation in which followers are working. Path-Goal Theory and Motivation Path-Goal Theory emphasizes the importance of followers’ motivation and relies on Vroom’s expectancy-value theory of motivation. Vroom’s expectancy-value theory suggests that we act because: 1. We expect positive outcomes in the future 2. We value the task Vroom’s expectancy theory focuses on three relationships: Robbins & Judge (2023), Vroom (1964), Vroom et al. (2015) 43 Leadership Porphyre Céline The challenges for leaders are to Four leadership behaviors, which form leadership styles, have been suggested as motivational drivers: Importantly, whether leader behaviors are motivating is contingent on the: 44 Leadership Porphyre Céline House & Mitchell (1974), Schriesheim et al. (2006) An integrative view Overall, situations, contexts, and contingencies are to be viewed as moderators between leaders and outcomes, which can: § Neutralize § Amplify § Conceal The leader’s influence. 45 Leadership Porphyre Céline Antonakis & Day (2018) Salas et al. (2004), West et al. (1998) Chapter 4 – Motivational approach Defining motivation Motivation refers to the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. The level of motivation varies both between individuals (i.e., individual differences) but also within individuals over time. 46 Leadership Porphyre Céline The three key elements of motivation are: 1. Intensity – how hard a person tries 2. Direction – in which direction the effort is conducted 3. Persistence – how long a person maintains effort What motivates us? Classic motivation theories Hierarchy of Needs theory The Hierarchy of Needs theory suggests that we have different needs. The search for satisfying these needs creates tension, motivation. We also have different hierarchized levels (i.e., we need to achieve lower levels first). These different needs are: a. Physiological: Hunger, thirst, shelter, and other bodily needs. b. Safety: Security and protection from other physical and emotional harm. c. Social-belongingness: Affection, love, acceptance, and friendship. d. Esteem: Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, recognition, achievement, status. e. Self-actualization: Drive to become what we can become: growth, achieving potential, and self-fulfillment. Maslow (1943), Skelsey (2014) 47 Leadership Porphyre Céline Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practitioners and managers. It is intuitively logical and easy to understand. But most research does not validate the model! § The needs are not hierarchized § The needs are not sequential, we need them to be satisfied simultaneously § Motivation does not only proceed from unsatisfied needs § Risks of classifying workers according to their level of needs achievement à Psychological needs are essential to motivation but provide only an incomplete picture of what it is. Two-factor Theory As a starting point, the two-factor theory takes a different view of satisfaction and suggests that: à Dissatisfaction and satisfaction are not part of a single continuum. The factors that relate to dissatisfaction or satisfaction are different. Hygiene factors – Extrinsic factors: The strict minima at work that, when unmet, lead to dissatisfaction. Motivating factors – Intrinsic factors: The bonus at work that, when met, leads to satisfaction. 48 Leadership Porphyre Céline Again, the two-factor theory became quite popular in scientific and industrial fields but is also poorly validated due to several limitations. § Overreliance on self-reports § Methods with low reliability and low replicability of empirical results § Concerns about the measures of satisfaction § It seems that both hygiene and motivating factors contribute both to satisfaction and dissatisfaction § But, the theory is still useful in illuminating independent aspects of motivation and satisfaction at work McClelland’s theory of Needs As Maslow’s theory, McClelland’s theory focuses on psychological needs: Compared to the previous theories, McClelland’s theory of needs has received better empirical support, but it has less practical impact than the others. 49 Leadership Porphyre Céline The needs are theorized as subconscious – measurement is therefore difficult. These needs are observed over time and behaviors – they have low practical value in knowing how to motivate people. Contemporary motivation theories Self-determination theory Self-determination theory (SDT) is a major meta-theory of well-being and performance, composed of several fundamental components: § Autonomy § Intrinsic motivation § Extrinsic motivation § Satisfaction of psychological needs Deci & Ryan (2000) The theory suggests that: ü People strive for growth and development ü People prefer to feel that they have control over their actions ü This is possible through the satisfaction of three basic needs: - Need for autonomy - Need for competence - Need for relatedness SDT considers three different types of motivation: amotivation, extrinsic, and intrinsic motivation composed of 6 distinct regulations: 50 Leadership Porphyre Céline 51 Leadership Porphyre Céline The SDT posits that all humans have inherent growth tendencies and psychological needs that are the basis for self-growth and for the internalization and integration of motivation: 52 Leadership Porphyre Céline Albeit different dimensions have been delineated, it is important to consider them as a whole and interdependent dimension: How are we motivated? Expectancy-value theory Contrary to previous theories which focused on the content of motivation, expectancy-value theory focuses on the process which creates motivation. In his expectancy-value theory, Vroom suggested that we act because: (1) We expect specific beneficial outcomes in the future, and (2) We value the task The theory focuses on three relationships: 1) Expectancy: the effort–performance relationship The degree to which the individual believes exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance 53 Leadership Porphyre Céline 2) Instrumentality: the performance–reward relationship The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. 3) Valence: the rewards–personal goals relationships The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. Goal-setting theory Exerting an effort is always directed toward a goal, an objective. In their seminal theory, Locke & Latham revealed the impressive motivating effects of goals and their influence on performance. Goal-setting theory suggests that goals do four different things: ü They direct attention ü They mobilize effort ü They encourage persistence ü They facilitate the development of strategies Over the studies conducted on goal-setting theory, five characteristics have been most linked with performance: § Goal clarity › Goals need to be clearly stated § Challenge › Goals have to be challenging – that is, difficult, but not too difficult § Goal commitment › Expectations for success and overall motivation are critical § Feedback › Feedback that is both related to the outcomes, but most importantly the process § Goal complexity › Goals and tasks need to be specific and not too complex to understand Locke & Latham (2002) 54 Leadership Porphyre Céline Social-cognitive theory The social-cognitive theory is one of the major psychological theories and suggested that people are motivated when they believe that they are capable of achieving the task, i.e., self-efficacy. à Self-efficacy refers to the individual’s belief of being capable of a task. Albeit simple, this mechanism is one of the most powerful drivers of behavior and is widely validated. 55 Leadership Porphyre Céline Self-efficacy beliefs are an important mechanism that managers can leverage with employees by: - Giving relevant experiences with the task – enactive mastery - Enable them to have relevant models – vicarious modeling - Reassure them that they have what it takes – verbal persuasion - Energizing them with the positive emotions that can result from the task – arousal Do others influence our motivation? Equity theory According to equity theory, employees engage in two main comparisons at work: 1. They compare what they get from their job (their « outcomes », such as pay, promotions, recognition, etc.) to what they put into it (their « inputs », such as effort, experience, and education). 2. They compare this first ratio to those of their coworkers. 56 Leadership Porphyre Céline Organizational justice These comparisons and the notion of equity at the workplace resonate with one of the most studied and prevalent organizational behavior phenomenon. à Organizational justice refers to the overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Equity and justice outcomes When treated unfairly, employees are more likely to: Furthermore, ensuring equity and fairness is not only important to avoid negative outcomes but also to foster positive ones. When treated fairly, employees are more likely to: 57 Leadership Porphyre Céline Motivating through the design of the job Motivating by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) à Job design refers to the content and organization of one’s work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities (Parker, 2014, p. 662) The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) suggests that the way elements in a job are organized can influence: ü Employee efforts ü The persistence in their goals ü Their job performance The way work is structured has a bigger impact on an individual’s motivation than most generally think. It is no surprise that the question of how to design jobs have received so much attention from managers and researchers since the beginning of the 20th century: § Taylorism – Theory of scientific management § Fordism and assembly lines § Fayol’s and Weber’s organizational theories § The Hawthorne Studies – Human relations movement The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) describes jobs in terms of five dimensions: 58 Leadership Porphyre Céline Later on, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) enlarged the number of characteristics linked to motivation and satisfaction: The double edge-sword effect of work characteristics Of course, poorly designed jobs can transform job characteristics into stressors and have a detrimental effect on employees’ motivation, satisfaction, and health. 59 Leadership Porphyre Céline The Job Demands-Resources model (JDR) integrates these ideas and suggests that: Both demands and resources contribute to performance through their distinctive effects on strain and engagement Bakker & Demerouti (2017) European Working Conditions Survey (2021) 60 Leadership Porphyre Céline Profiles of job characteristics A cross-sectional study among 2,183 workers. Measures: Job demands: Workload › Cognitive demands › Meeting problems during work. Job resources: Social relationships › Possibility to learn new things › Autonomy › Possibility to participate to company’s decisions › Precision in tasks › Social utility › Organizational utility. Burnout: Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, reduced efficacy. Engagement: Vigor, dedication, absorption. Statistical analysis on groups or profiles of job characteristics, and their influence on job burnout and engagement. 61 Leadership Porphyre Céline An integrative model of job design: the SMART model Sharon & Jorritsma (2021) 62 Leadership Porphyre Céline An integrating and overarching model of motivation 63 Leadership Porphyre Céline Chapter 5 – Charismatic and transformational approaches The New Leadership approach Leaders are agents of change who – through the use of emotional appeals, symbolic gestures and a combination of influence mechanisms – transform followers into highly inspired, energized, and motivated teams. While the trait, behavioral, and situational approaches to leadership brought several key insights for understanding leadership. Some critical questions remained unanswered § Why do some leaders succeed at getting their followers to go above and beyond what is asked of them? § Why do followers of some leaders value the collective vision and mission more than their own individual materialistic goals and aspirations? § Why are some leaders more effective at generating emotional arousal in their followers than others? The New Leadership Approach is constituted of several interrelated theories: - Charismatic leadership (Conger & Kanungo, 1998) - Transformational leadership (Bass, 1985) - Visionary leadership (Westley & Mintzberg, 1989) Contrary to the other approaches, the New Leadership approach sees leaders as someone who defines organizational reality through the articulation of a vision which is a reflection of how they define the organization’s mission and the values which support it. They are managers of meaning, emotions, and change rather than influence. Charismatic leadership The term charisma is often used to describe a subset of leaders who: « By the force of their personal abilities are capable of having profound and extraordinary effects on followers » (House & Baetz, 1979, p. 399) « Have a special personality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader » (Weber, 1947) [Are involved in] a distinct social relationship between [them] and followers, in which the leader presents a revolutionary idea, a transcendent image or ideal which goes beyond the immediate … or the reasonable; while the follower accepts this course of action not because of its rational likelihood of success … but because of an effective belief in the extraordinary qualities of the leader » (Dow, 1969, p. 315) 64 Leadership Porphyre Céline Shamir et al. (1993) à Remember the self-determination and self-efficacy theory! Attributional perspective on charismatic leadership Importantly, charismatic leadership is an attribution made by followers. « It is not what the leader is but what people see the leader as that counts in generating the charismatic relationship » (Willner, 1984, p. 14) The leaders’ role behaviors, in the eyes of followers, make that individual: - A task or directive leader - A social or participative leader - But also a charismatic or non-charismatic leader 65 Leadership Porphyre Céline Conger & Kanungo (1998) 66 Leadership Porphyre Céline Theories of charismatic leadership have received varying degrees of empirical support and shows that charismatic leadership is associated with: § High performance goals § High work effort, work performance, and intrinsic motivation § Innovation behavior and organizational performance § Followers’ job satisfaction and emotions § Followers’ trust and confidence, adjustment to leader and group § Less workplace deviance, less turnover intentions, less burnout Brown & Treviño (2006), Cicero & Pierro (2007), De Hoogh & Den Hartog (2009), Howell & Frost (1989), Kirkpatrick & Locke (1996), Michaelis & Stegmaier (2009), Misangyi et al. (2008) Transformational leadership Transformational leadership looks at how certain leaders are able to inspire followers to accomplish great things. Transactional vs. transformational leadership The concept finds its origin in Burn’s (1978) definition of two types of leadership: 67 Leadership Porphyre Céline The transformational approach is one of the most current and popular approaches to leadership. It originated in the 1980s by Bass (1985), refining the previous work of Burns (1978) and House (1976). Then, it expanded and went further than the charismatic leadership approach. Leadership is seen as a process that changes and transforms people. It pays attention to people’s emotions, values, needs, motives, standards, and long-term goals. Its emphasis on intrinsic motivation and follower development fits the needs of today’s expectations to be inspired and empowered to succeed in times of uncertainty. In a nutshell, Bass (1985) argued that transformational leadership motivates followers to do more than expected by: Raising followers’ levels of consciousness about the importance and value of specified and idealized goals. Getting followers to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the team or organization. Moving followers to address higher-level needs. The Full Range Leadership Model Bass (1985), Northouse (2021) The four factors of transformational leadership Idealized influence It represents the emotional component of leadership. It describes leaders who: § Act as positive role model for followers § Convey an ideological vision and a sense of purpose to their followers § Attract admiration, respect, and trust § Show high ethical standards 68 Leadership Porphyre Céline Inspirational motivation It represents the motivational component of leadership. It describes leaders who: § Communicate high expectations § Inspire them through motivation to become committed and part of the shared vision § Increase followers’ confidence and self-efficacy § Arouse team dynamics and team spirit Intellectual stimulation It represents the cognitive component of leadership. It describes leaders who: § Stimulate followers to be creative and innovative § Challenge their own beliefs and values § Questions existing assumptions and status quo § Reframe problems and find new solutions Individualized consideration It represents the relational component of leadership. It describes leaders who: § Provide a supportive climate § Attend to individual needs § Act as coach and adviser § Create new learning opportunities 69 Leadership Porphyre Céline Transactional leadership factors Contingent rewards It represents the exchange process component of leadership. It describes leaders who: § Provide clear rewards depending on performance § Obtain agreement on what needs to be done Management by exception It represents the control process component of leadership. It describes leaders who: § Watch followers closely for mistakes and rule violations § Engage in corrective action Laissez-faire It represents the absence of leadership. It describes leaders who: § Abdicate responsibility § Delay decisions § Give no feedback § Make little effort to help followers satisfy their needs 70 Leadership Porphyre Céline The additive effect of transformational leadership How to develop your transformational leadership? Kouzes & Posner (2002) 71 Leadership Porphyre Céline Empirical support for Transformational Leadership theory Wang et al. (2011) Transformational leadership has been unarguably the most researched theory in leadership research and has been associated with: ü Higher performance at the individual, team, and organizational level ü Higher citizenship behaviors ü Higher job satisfaction ü Higher organizational commitment and empowerment ü Lower turnover 72 Leadership Porphyre Céline ü Higher employee well-being ü Higher followers’ leadership capacity and self-efficacy Cho & Dansereau (2010), DeGroot et al. (2000), Dumdum et al. (2002), Martin & Epitropaki, 2001), Wang et al. (2011) Gender differences in transformational leadership Eagly et al. (2003) Transformational leadership Bass & Avolio (1993), Dinh et al. (2014), Gardner et al. (2010), Lowe & Gardner (2000, 2001) 73