Syntax Ch 2 PDF

Ch 2: Constituent Structure  2.1 Heads, Modifiers, and Arrangements of Words The relationship between of heads and modifiers is called as dependencies. Dependencies is the central to syntax. The arrangement of words into phrases and clauses help to make the sentences...

Ch 2: Constituent Structure  2.1 Heads, Modifiers, and Arrangements of Words The relationship between of heads and modifiers is called as dependencies. Dependencies is the central to syntax. The arrangement of words into phrases and clauses help to make the sentences have meaning. For instance, in English, nouns can be modified by various types of words and phrases – adjectives, prepositional phrases and relative clauses, not to mention words such as a, the, this and some. Example: Noun= house ⫸ modified by the definite articles 1. a. The house  b.The splendid house ⫸ modified by the definite articles and the adjective c.The house on the hilltop ⫸ modified by the prepositional phrase d.The house which they built out of reinforced concrete ⫸ modified by the relative clause In (1a), house is modified by the definite article the; in (1b) it is modified by the definite article and by the adjective splendid. The definite article, the indefinite article a and demonstratives such as this and that precede their head noun, but certain modifiers follow their head noun. Examples are the prepositional phrase on the hilltop in (1c) and the relative clause which they built out of reinforced concrete in (1d).  In English, in certain declarative clauses the modifiers of prepositions follow their head preposition. Example (3a) shows the typical pattern, with the preposition into followed by the room; (3b) shows an impossible example, with into at the beginning of the clause and the room at the end; and (3c) shows the correct structure. (3) a. Jeeves shimmered into the room. b. *Into Jeeves shimmered the room. c. Into the room shimmered Jeeves. In some other English clauses, the noun-phrase modifier of a preposition can be separated from its head preposition. Example (4a) is the typical way of questioning room in (3a). In it, which room is at the front of the clause, and into is ‘stranded’ at the end of the clause. Example (4b) is also acceptable but is mainly used in formal writing. 4. a. Which room did Jeeves shimmer into? b. Into which room did Jeeves shimmer? Similar stranding is found in clauses introduced by which or who. In formal writing, a preposition plus which/who turns up at the front of the clause, as in: 5. The room into which Jeeves shimmered. In informal writing and in informal speech, the preposition is left behind at the end of the clause, as in: 6. The room which Jeeves shimmered into. Verbs can be modified by a number of items, as we have seen in Chapter 1. Example (7) shows the order of modifiers in a neutral clause, that is, a clause in which no particular word or phrase is emphasized. 7. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday. Barbara, the subject noun phrase, precedes the verb, but the other modifiers follow it – the noun phrase (direct object) the results, the prepositional phrase (oblique object) to Alan and the prepositional phrase (adverb of time) on Tuesday. Typically, the subject and the direct object are immediately next to the verb, the subject preceding it, the direct object following it. In (7), the subject Barbara and the direct object the results are next to the verb. 2.2 Tests for Phrases Tests have been developed to help analysts because it is not always clear how the words in a given phrase are arranged or how the phrases are arranged in a given clause. 1. Transposition Many sequences of the words can be moved together into different slots in a clause. This is evidence that the words form a phrase. Transposition is one of the test that reveal whether a given sequence of words make up a phrase or just words. Transposition is essential because: 1. The vast amount of research on English syntax in the 20th century still come across examples whose structure is not obvious. 2. Beside English, many linguists work on languages which have been little studied or not studied at all. Example: We can think of (1a) as being converted to (3b) by the words into the room being moved, or transposed, to the front of the clause. 1. a. Jeeves shimmered into the room. b. Into the room shimmered Jeeves. ⫸ This transposition indicates that the three separate words combine into a larger block, a phrase. ⫸ Transposition also applies to phrases without prepositions. 2. a. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday. b. The results Barbara handed to Alan on Tuesday. (1) and (2) example is a transposition without any changes in the clause except the position. 3. a. The pupils in this maths class gave cake to Margaret every Friday. (An active clause) b. Cake were given to Margaret every Friday by the pupils in this maths class. (A passive clause) ⫸ The example (3) uses transposition with some changes in the clause. The phrase the pupils in this maths class occurs in the different constructions in (3a) and (3b). It occurs at the beginning of the clause in (3a), and at the end of the clause in (3b) and is the complement of the preposition by.  The differences between (3a) and (3b) also includes the followings: Example (3a) contains gave, while (3b) contains the words were and given. Example (3b) also contains the prepositional phrase by the pupils in this maths class, whereas (3a) has no prepositional phrase. The test of transposition applies to other sequences of words/phrases, as shown by (4). 4. a. This parcel is very heavy. (The phrase very heavy is the complement of is.) b. This very heavy parcel was delivered yesterday. (Very heavy is the modifier of parcel.) c. Very heavy, this parcel! (Very heavy at the beginning of the spoken construction) d. What this parcel is is very heavy. (Very heavy is the complement of is, but in a special emphatic construction). 2. Substitution: The idea behind this test is a single word can substitute for a number of words hanging together as a phrase. See the following example. 1. a. Barbara handed the intriguing results of the latest examination to Alan on Tuesday. b. Barbara handed them to Alan on Tuesday. ⫸ Noun in (1a) can be substituted with noun in (1b). The substitution also applies to sequences of words with adjectives. 2. a. This parcel is very heavy. b. his parcel is astonishingly and frighteningly heavy. b. This parcel is heavy. ⫸ The single adjective heavy substitutes for the sequences very heavy and astonishingly and frighteningly heavy.  Another type of substitution is possible, using the specialized substitution word so. 3. A= This large parcel is very heavy. B= No, it's not. A= It is so. ⫸The word so stands for very heavy. Substitution can be applied to sequences introduced by prepositions. 4. a. Vera is crocheting in the lounge. b. Vera is crocheting there. ⫸ The word there substitute the location expression, the lounge.  Examples in which a single preposition substitutes for a whole sequence are difficult to find. This is mainly because prepositions typically require a complement. However, in informal spoken English, in and out in (5) can be shortened to those in (6). 5. a. The cat trotted in the kitchen. b. The mouse jumped out the cheese-box. 6. a. The cat trotted in. b. The mouse jumped out. However, for the large majority of prepositions, the substitution of a preposition for preposition plus noun phrase does not work, whether in writing or informal speech, in standard or non-standard English. 3. Ellipsis: 1. The terrier attacked the burglar. The terrier savaged the burglar’s ankles. 2. The terrier attacked the burglar and the terrier savaged the burglar’s ankles. 3. The terrier attacked the burglar and [ ] savaged the burglar’s ankles. Example (1) contains two separate clauses. In (2), the clauses are conjoined by and; this gives a single sentence consisting of two clauses, each beginning with the terrier. Example (3) is produced by deleting the second occurrence of the terrier. The square brackets in (3c) mark the site of the missing words, which are said to have been ellipted. Example (3) is an example of ellipsis. The important point about this type of ellipsis is that it applies only to complete phrases. SUMMARY Heads and their modifiers are typically grouped together inside clauses. Different languages have different orders of head and modifiers. There are three tests for whether a sequence of words forms a phrase: transposition, substitution, and ellipsis. In syntax, the term ‘phrase’ is applied to single words and to sequences of words. Phrases can be extended indefinitely, different types of phrase have different types of head, phrases occur in clauses, but clauses can also occur inside phrases.