Summary Revision Notes PDF

02 - of the Mind Neural Communication Neurons: ○ Building blocks of the nervous system; communication occurs via neurotransmitters. Structure of a Neuron: ○ Dendrites (input), cell body (life center), axon (message transmission), myelin s...

02 - of the Mind Neural Communication Neurons: ○ Building blocks of the nervous system; communication occurs via neurotransmitters. Structure of a Neuron: ○ Dendrites (input), cell body (life center), axon (message transmission), myelin sheath (protection/speed). Neural Impulse: ○ Action potential = brief electrical charge; neurotransmitters communicate across synapses. Neurotransmitters and Their Effects Key Neurotransmitters: ○ Serotonin: Regulates mood, hunger, sleep; low levels associated with depression. ○ Dopamine: Affects mood and movement; high levels linked to schizophrenia, low levels to Parkinson’s. ○ Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle action and memory; low levels lead to Alzheimer's. Brain Structure and Functions Lobes of the Brain: ○ Frontal Lobe: Executive functions, motor control, personality. ○ Parietal Lobe: Sensory information processing (touch, temperature). ○ Temporal Lobe: Hearing, memory, language (Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas). ○ Occipital Lobe: Visual processing. Language ○ Wernicke’s area: language comprehension and understanding = if damaged then they would experience fluent aphasia - temporal lobe ○ Broca’s area: language production= if damaged then there would be an inability to speak words and sentences like non-fluent aphasia Cortex’s ○ Pre-frontal cortex: impulse control, decision making ○ Somatosensory cortex: input for all the senses Brain Plasticity Constant Change:  ○ The brain reorganizes itself and forms new pathways (neuroplasticity). ○ Can take on a role of another part easily ○ Neurogenesis occurs; particularly prominent in young brains. Tools for Brain Investigation Modern Techniques: ○ EEG: Measures electrical activity in the brain. ○ MRI: ○ fMRI: Imaging of brain structures and functions while doing a task. ○ PET: Observes activity by tracking glucose levels during tasks. Split-Brain Research Roger Sperry's Findings: a. Lateralization of brain functions; specializations between left (language) and right (creativity) hemispheres. b. Split-brain patients show independent functioning of hemispheres post-surgery. 03 - Physical Development Brain Growth: Maturation involves stages like synaptic pruning and neural plasticity, with critical periods for language and vision. Motor Skills: Development follows a fixed sequence (e.g., sit, crawl, walk), influenced by biological maturation but adjusted by experience. Infantile Amnesia: Early conscious memory develops around 3.5 years. Cognitive Development (Piaget) Schemas: Frameworks for organizing knowledge. 1. Assimilation: Integrating new info into existing schemas. 2. Accommodation: Adjusting schemas for new info. Stages: 1. Sensorimotor (0-2): Object permanence. 2. Preoperational (2-6): Pretend play, egocentrism, conservation issues. 3. Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical thinking, mathematical transformations. 4. Formal Operational (12+): Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking. Vygotsky’s View: Social interactions and language are critical for cognitive growth. Social Development Attachment: 1. Secure: Confidence and exploration with caregiver presence. 2. Insecure: Anxiety or indifference toward caregiver. 3. Factors: Temperament and parenting responsiveness. 4. Harlow’s Study: Importance of comfort over nourishment in attachment. Parenting Styles: 1. Authoritarian: Rules-focused, leads to lower self-esteem. 2. Permissive: Lenient, results in aggression and immaturity. 3. Negligent: Uninvolved, associated with poor outcomes. 4. Authoritative: Balanced, fosters self-esteem and competence. Self-Concept  Development: Emerges from self-recognition (6 months) to stable self-image (8-10 years). Positive Self-Concept: Leads to confidence, optimism, and sociability. Attachment and Later Relationships Influences: ○ Secure attachments lead to healthy adult relationships. ○ Insecure styles (anxious, avoidant, disorganized) affect intimacy and trust. Deprivation Effects: Abuse or neglect can lead to emotional and behavioral issues, but resilience is possible with support. 04- Development Adolescence Adulthood 1. Definition and Nature ○ Transition phase from childhood to adulthood marked by physical, cognitive, and social changes. ○ Historically viewed as a time of "storm and stress" but also a period of vitality and idealism. 2. Physical Development ○ Puberty: Onset of sexual maturation with primary and secondary characteristics. Timing varies widely, e.g., early or delayed puberty. ○ Teenage Brain: Ongoing brain development with pruning of unused neural pathways and growth of myelin, leading to improved judgment but impulsivity due to lagging frontal lobe maturity. 3. Cognitive Development ○ Reasoning (Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage): Adolescents develop abstract reasoning, debate complex ideas, and detect inconsistencies. ○ Moral Development (Kohlberg): Progression from: Preconventional Morality (self-interest driven) Conventional Morality (rule-following for social approval) Postconventional Morality (ethical principles beyond societal rules). 4. Social Development ○ Identity Formation (Erikson): Adolescents explore roles and values to develop a coherent sense of self. ○ Relationships: Shift from parental dependence to peer influence. Development of intimacy begins with a clearer self-identity. Adulthood 1. Emerging Adulthood ○ Transitional phase (18-mid 20s) marked by dependence on parents and exploration of adult roles. 2. Physical Development ○ Early adulthood: Peak physical condition. ○ Middle adulthood: Gradual physical and fertility decline (e.g., menopause for women, reduced testosterone for men). ○ Late adulthood: Physical decline accelerates (e.g., reduced sensory sharpness, weakened immune system). 3. Cognitive Development ○ Memory shifts: Early: Peak learning and recall ability. Middle: Difficulty recalling but better retention of meaningful information. Late: Slower processing and memory deterioration.  ○ Neurocognitive Disorders: Include conditions like Alzheimer’s, characterized by progressive memory and cognitive decline. 4. Social Development ○ Transitions: Mid-life Crisis: Often triggered by significant life events (not just age). Social Clock: Cultural expectations for life milestones (e.g., marriage, parenthood). ○ Commitments: Focus on intimacy (relationships) and generativity (work and contribution). ○ Well-being: Generally stable or positive in later years but accompanied by loneliness and loss of close relationships. 5. Death and Dying ○ Coping with loss and grief, which can be prolonged and challenging, especially with untimely deaths. ○ Terminal decline phase involves cognitive and emotional shifts. 05- Learning 1. Classical Conditioning: Definition: A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Example: Pavlov's experiment with dogs, where a bell (neutral stimulus) was paired with food (unconditioned stimulus) to produce salivation (conditioned response). 2. Operant Conditioning: Definition: A type of associative learning where behavior is modified by its consequences, either reinforced or punished. Example: A rat pressing a lever to receive food (reinforcement) or to avoid a shock (punishment). A type of learning that occurs through observing the behaviors of others and the consequences that follow, as demonstrated in Bandura's studies. 3. Reinforcement: Definition: A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Types: Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage behavior (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior). Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage behavior (e.g., stopping a loud noise when a desired action is performed). 4. Punishment: Definition: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Example: Scolding a child for misbehavior, which may reduce the occurrence of that behavior in the future. 5. Stimulus Generalization: Definition: The tendency for a conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. Example: A dog salivating to a different bell sound that resembles the original bell. 6. Modeling and Imitation: Definition: Learning that occurs through observing and imitating the behaviors of others. Example: A child learning to tie their shoes by watching a parent. 7. Behaviorism: Definition: A psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior. Key Figures: Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning) and B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning). 8. Behavior Modification:  Techniques used to change undesirable behaviors through reinforcement strategies, often applied in educational and therapeutic settings. 9. Biopsychosocial Perspective: An approach that considers biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior and learning processes. 10. Innate Responses: Behaviors that are genetically programmed and do not require learning, such as reflexive salivation in response to food. 06- Personality Personality: Defined as characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist over time and across situations. Theories of Personality: Psychoanalytic Theory: Focus on unconscious motivations; key concepts include Freud’s structures of the mind (id, ego, superego) and psychosexual development. Humanistic Theory: Emphasis on individual growth and self-actualization; notable theorists include Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs) and Rogers (Person-Centered Approach). Trait Theory: Focus on stable personality traits; notable models include Allport’s cardinal/central/secondary traits, Cattell’s 16 factors, and the Big Five (OCEAN). Social-Cognitive Theory: Highlights interaction between personal traits and environmental factors; includes concepts like reciprocal determinism and locus of control. Freud’s Contributions: Mind structure: Conscious, preconscious, unconscious. Personality dynamics: Conflict between id, ego, and superego. Psychosexual stages: ○ Oral:0-18 months Weaning of breast or formula Oral fixation:more likely to smoke,overeat, drink alcohol,bite your nails Personality: overly dependent on others, gullible, be a follower or become aggressive and pessimistic ○ Anal:18-36 months Toilet training Obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control Anal expulsive:messy and disorganised ○ Phallic:3-6 years Resolving Oedipus or electra complex Sexual deviance Weak or confused on sexual identity ○ Latency:6-puberty Dormant sexual feelings Sexual urges are repressed No fixation ○ Genital:puberty onwards Maturation of sexual interests Full sexual maturity Sexually mature and mentally healthy Assessment Methods: Projective Tests: Rorschach Inkblot and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Self-Concept: Humanistic approach uses congruence between actual and ideal selves. Trait Inventories: Questionnaires to measure personality dimensions. Behavioral Observation: Used in social-cognitive theory for real-world and simulated settings. Humanistic Concepts: Self-actualization: Achieving one’s potential. Congruence: Harmony between actual self and ideal self. Incongruence: when ideal self and actual self don’t match Core conditions for growth: Empathy, genuineness, unconditional positive regard. Trait Models: Big Five Traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. Eysenck’s Dimensions: Extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability. Social-Cognitive Highlights: Reciprocal determinism: Interaction of behavior, cognition, and environment. Locus of control: Internal (self-driven outcomes) vs. external (influenced by outside factors).