Behavioural Psychology End Term Exam Study Material PDF

**Portion for the Exam Behavioural Psychology** **Module 1 - The Science of Psychology** History & Origin of Psychology Fundamental Ideas of Psychology Branches/Fields of Psychology Educational theories by Pavlov, Skinner and Kolbe experiential theory **Module 2 - The Biological Perspectiv...

**Portion for the Exam Behavioural Psychology** **Module 1 - The Science of Psychology** History & Origin of Psychology Fundamental Ideas of Psychology Branches/Fields of Psychology Educational theories by Pavlov, Skinner and Kolbe experiential theory **Module 2 - The Biological Perspective** Structure and functions of the neurons Structure and function of Brain Nervous system Cognition: Understanding Human Behavior **Module 3 Consciousness** Aspects of consciousness Sleep Dreams Hypnosis **Module 4 Stress, Health and Well-being** Stress and Stressors Psychological Reactions to Stress Physiological Reactions to Stress Managing stress **Module 5 - Psychological Disorders &Therapies** Abnormality Types of Disorders Treatment of Mental Health Problems Applying Psychology to everyday life **Module 6 Development & Social Psychology** Hereditary & Environment Social Influence, Cognition & Interaction Aggression &Pro-social behaviour **Module 1 - The Science of Psychology** ** History & Origin of Psychology** The history of psychology can be traced back to the 17th century, when philosophers like Rene Descartes began to study the mind-body connection. However, psychology as a distinct scientific discipline is generally considered to have begun in 1879, when German physiologist Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig. Wundt is often referred to as the first psychologist because of his work studying the conscious mind through introspection. He believed that psychology should be a scientific field of study, and his work helped to establish experimental psychology. Wundt\'s 1873 book, Principles of Physiological Psychology, outlined the connections between physiology and the study of human thought and behavior. **Gestalt psychology** In the early 20th century, German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler introduced Gestalt psychology to the United States. Gestalt psychology emphasizes how the parts of a sensory experience relate to each other as a whole. **Humanistic psychology** Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, humanistic psychology emerged as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology focuses on the conscious mind, free will, and human dignity. **Psychoactive drugs** In the 1950s, the FDA approved psychoactive drugs, which opened up new treatments for mental illness. ** Fundamental Ideas of Psychology** **Behavior** Psychology\'s focus on behavior is a fundamental principle, and behavior is often the best way to understand and make relevant affect, cognition, and motivation. **Cognitive processes** The cognitive perspective focuses on the mental processes that underlie human behavior and cognition. **Humanistic approach** This approach considers that each individual is unique and should be studied uniquely. **Developmental psychology** This course introduces the basic principles of human development, from conception to death. **Functionalism** This perspective focuses on how mental activities help an organism fit into its environment. **Gestalt psychology** This school of psychology is based on the idea that people experience things as unified wholes. **Personality psychology** This discipline focuses on understanding intraindividual processes and how they differ between individuals. ** Branches/Fields of Psychology** There are many branches of psychology, including: **Clinical psychology** Psychologists in this field work in hospitals, mental health clinics, and private practice. **Counselling psychology** Psychologists in this field work in schools, colleges, universities, and community organizations to help people cope with personal, social, and vocational problems. **Developmental psychology** Psychologists in this field work in academia, research institutions, and government agencies to study human development across the lifespan. **Forensic psychology** Psychologists in this field work in courts, correctional facilities, and law enforcement agencies to apply psychological principles to legal issues. **Health psychology** Psychologists in this field work in hospitals, clinics, and research institutions to study the psychological factors that contribute to physical health and illness. **Abnormal psychology** Psychologists in this field study patients who display abnormal behavior or thinking, which can include mental illnesses such as bulimia or schizophrenia. **Neuropsychology** Psychologists in this field work in hospitals, rehabilitation centers, and research institutions to study the relationship between brain function and behavior. **Evolutionary psychology** Psychologists in this field study psychological structures from an evolutionary perspective to recognize which human psychological features are evolved adaptations. **Applied behaviour analysis** Psychologists in this field work to improve socially significant human behaviors such as social skills, reading, and communication. ** Educational theories by Pavlov, Skinner and Kolbe experiential theory** **Classical Conditioning** Does the name Ivan Pavlov ring a bell? Even if you are new to the study of psychology, chances are that you have heard of Pavlov and his famous dogs. Pavlov (1849--1936), a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is best known for his experiments in classical conditioning. As we discussed briefly in the previous section, classical conditioning is a process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov's research on the digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to his discovery of the learning process now known as classical conditioning. Pavlov came to his conclusions about how learning occurs completely by accident. Pavlov was a physiologist, not a psychologist. Physiologists study the life processes of organisms, from the molecular level to the level of cells, organ systems, and entire organisms. Pavlov's area of interest was the digestive system (Hunt, 2007). In his studies with dogs, Pavlov surgically implanted tubes inside dogs' cheeks to collect saliva. He then measured the amount of saliva produced in response to various foods. Over time, Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at the taste of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl, and even at the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps. Salivating to food in the mouth is reflexive, so no learning is involved. However, dogs don't naturally salivate at the sight of an empty bowl or the sound of footsteps. These unusual responses intrigued Pavlov, and he wondered what accounted for what he called the dogs' "psychic secretions" (Pavlov, 1927). To explore this phenomenon in an objective manner, Pavlov designed a series of carefully controlled experiments to see which stimuli would cause the dogs to salivate. He was able to train the dogs to salivate in response to stimuli that clearly had nothing to do with food, such as the sound of a bell, a light, and a touch on the leg. Through his experiments, Pavlov realized that an organism has two types of responses to its environment: (1) unconditioned (unlearned) responses, or reflexes, and (2) conditioned (learned) responses. In Pavlov's experiments, the dogs salivated each time meat powder was presented to them. The meat powder in this situation was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dogs' salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR): a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus. Before conditioning, think of the dogs' stimulus and response like this: Meat powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR) Meat powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)Meat powder (UCS) → Salivation (U CR) In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov would sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give the dogs the meat powder. The tone was the neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response. Prior to conditioning, the dogs did not salivate when they just heard the tone because the tone had no association for the dogs. **Quite simply this pairing means:** Tone (NS) + Meat Powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR) Tone (NS) + Meat Powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)Tone (NS) + Meat Powd er (UCS) → Salivation (UCR) When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate to the tone alone, just as they previously had salivated at the sound of the assistants' footsteps. The behaviour caused by the conditioned stimulus is called the conditioned response (CR). In the case of Pavlov's dogs, they had learned to associate the tone (CS) with being fed, and they began to salivate (CR) in anticipation of food. Tone (CS) → Salivation (CR) Tone (CS) → Salivation (CR)Tone (CS) → Salivation (CR) Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus. **Operant Conditioning** **Operant conditioning** is so named because the subject "operates" on the environment. An early theory of operant conditioning, proposed by Edward Thorndike, used the name **instrumental learning** because the response is "instrumental" in obtaining the reward. (Both operant and classical conditioning are also called **S‐R learning** because a stimulus, S, has been paired with a response, R.) A device called an **operant box** (sometimes called a **Skinner box)** was designed by the well‐ known experimenter B. F. Skinner. Learning in the operant conditioning procedure can be explained by the **law of effect** (also proposed by Thorndike, in 1911), which suggests that responses are learned when they are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs." Although operant conditioning requires the use of neither a CS nor a UCS, a CS can be employed but requires the use of shaping and reinforcement procedures. **Shaping.** In operant conditioning, the subject must first *emit* the response that the experimenter plans to reward. **Shaping** is the name given to those initial steps needed to get the subject to engage in the behavior that is to be rewarded. If, for example, a rat is to be rewarded for pressing a bar, it must first learn ∙ to go near the bar in an operant box ∙ to touch the bar ∙ to press the bar Generally, rewards (usually food) initially are given at the end of each of these steps. Finally, however, a reward is given only when the bar is pressed. (With subjects who understand spoken commands, shaping can sometimes be accomplished verbally.) **Positive and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement** is the process of following an event with a second event meant to make the recurrence of the first event more likely. The second event itself is called the **reinforcer**. **Positive reinforcement** is the presentation of a rewarding or *pleasant* stimulus (something that the subject wants, also called a **positive reinforcer)** that *increases* the probability that a particular response will occur. For example, if a student rewrites a term paper and is rewarded for that rewrite by a better grade, getting the grade is the positive reinforcer, and the teacher\'s awarding the grade to encourage rewrites is positive reinforcement. While a rat may learn to press a bar in an operant box if the action triggers a mechanism that delivers food, it may also respond to such rewards as water or even a minute amount of pleasurable electrical stimulation of a particular brain structure. (If food or water are to be used for reinforcement, the animal is usually first deprived of that substance for a time.) **Negative reinforcement**, on the other hand, is the presentation of an *unpleasant* stimulus (something the subject does *not* want, also called a **negative reinforcer)** that *increases* the likelihood that a particular response, in order to remove or avoid the negative reinforcer, will occur. For example, giving a rat an unpleasant electric shock when it presses a bar increases the probability that the rat will avoid the bar‐pressing action. As another example, a rat presented with such a negative reinforcer may learn to run to the right in a maze to avoid getting the shock that awaits it on the left, or a child may clean toys off the floor without being told in order to avoid a spanking (many of which were received in the past for not complying). **Punishment.** **Punishment** differs from negative reinforcement in that it *decreases* the probability that a particular preceding event will occur again. When subjects are punished, they experience the unpleasant (aversive) stimulus rather than avoid it. Once experienced, punishment may sometimes serve as a negative reinforcer; a subject may increase certain types of responses to avoid the unpleasant experience. For example, a student who doesn\'t study may be punished by being given an F on an exam. But while the F was initially punishment, it can now serve as a negative reinforcer that causes the student to *increase* study time to avoid getting an F. **Module 2 - The Biological Perspective** Structure and functions of the neurons What are the nervous system, neurons, and nerves, and how do they relate to one another? This chapter will explore a complex system of cells, chemicals, and organs that work together to produce behaviour, thoughts, and actions. The first part of this complex arrangement is the **nervous system**, a network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body. The field of **neuroscience** is a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue that form the nervous system. **Biological psychology,** or **behavioural neuroscience**, is the branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behaviour, and learning, and it is the primary area associated with the biological perspective in psychology. **Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous System's Building Block** In 1887, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a doctor studying slides of brain tissue, first theorized that the nervous system was made up of individual cells (Ramón y Cajal, translation, 1995). Although the entire body is composed of cells, each type of cell has a special purpose and function and, therefore, a special structure. For example, skin cells are flat, but muscle cells are long and stretchy. Most cells have three things in common: a nucleus, a cell body, and a cell membrane holding it all together. The **neuron** is the specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages within that system. Neurons are one of the messengers of the body, and that means that they have a very special structure, which we will explore in the video *The Basics: How the Brain Works, Part 1*: *The Neuron.* The parts of the neuron that receive messages from other cells are called the **dendrites**. The name *dendrite* means "tree-like," or "branch," and this structure does indeed look like the branches of a tree. The dendrites are attached to the cell body, or **soma**, which is the part of the cell that contains the nucleus and keeps the entire cell alive and functioning. The word *soma* means "body." The **axon** (from the Greek for "axis") is a fiber attached to the soma, and its job is to carry messages out to other cells. The end of the axon branches out into several shorter fibers that have swellings or little knobs on the ends called **axon terminals** (may also be called *presynaptic terminals*, *terminal buttons*, or *synaptic knobs*), which are responsible for communicating with other nerve cells. (See Figure 2.1.) Neurons make up a large part of the brain but they are not the only cells that affect our thinking, learning, memory, perception, and all of the other facets of life that make us who we are. The other primary cells are called glia, or **glial cells**, which serve a variety of functions. Some glia serve as a sort of structure on which the neurons develop and work and that hold the neurons in place. For example, during early brain development, radial glial cells (extending from inner to outer areas like the spokes of a wheel) help guide migrating neurons to form the outer layers of the brain. Other glia are involved in getting nutrients to the neurons, cleaning up the remains of neurons that have died, communicating with neurons and other glial cells, and providing insulation for neurons. Glial cells affect both the functioning and structure of neurons and specific types also have properties similar to stem cells, which allow them to develop into new neurons, both during prenatal development and in adult mammals (Bullock et al., 2005; Kriegstein & Alvarez-Buylla, 2009). Glial cells are also being investigated for their possible role in a variety of psychiatric disorders, including *major depressive disorder* and *schizophrenia*. It appears in some areas of the brain, major depressive disorder is characterized by lower numbers of specific glial cells whereas in schizophrenia, parts of the brain have a greater number (Blank & Prinz, 2013). to Learning Objectives 14.5 and 14.8. Recent findings also implicate glial cells in learning and behavior, both by affecting synaptic connectivity during development, and in mice transplanted with human glial cells, faster learning across a variety of learning and memory tasks (Han et al., 2013; Ji et al., 2013). Two special types of glial cells, called *oligodendrocytes* and *Schwann cells*, generate a layer of fatty substances called **myelin**. Oligodendrocytes produce myelin for the neurons in the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system); Schwann cells produce myelin for the neurons of the body (the peripheral nervous system). Myelin wraps around the shaft of the axons, forming an insulating and protective sheath. Bundles of myelin-coated axons travel together as "cables" in the central nervous system called *tracts*, and in the peripheral nervous system bundles of axons are called **nerves**. Myelin from Schwann cells has a unique feature that can serve as a tunnel through which damaged nerve fibers can reconnect and repair themselves. That's why a severed toe might actually regain some function and feeling if sewn back on in time. Unfortunately, myelin from oligodendrocytes covering axons in the brain and spinal cord does not have this feature, and these axons are more likely to be permanently damaged. The myelin sheath is a very important part of the neuron. It not only insulates and protects the neuron, it also speeds up the neural message traveling down the axon. As shown in Figure 2.1, sections of myelin bump up next to each other on the axon, similar to the way sausages are linked together. The places where the myelin seems to bump are actually small spaces on the axon called nodes, which are not covered in myelin. Myelinated and unmyelinated sections of axons have slightly different electrical properties. There are also far more ion channels at each node. Both of these features affect the speed the electrical signal is conducted down the axon. When the electrical impulse that is the neural message travels down an axon coated with myelin, the electrical impulse is regenerated at each node and appears to "jump" or skip rapidly from node to node down the axon (Koester & Siegelbaum, 2013; Schwartz et al., 2013). That makes the message go much faster down the coated axon than it would down an uncoated axon of a neuron in the brain. In the disease called *multiple sclerosis* (MS), the myelin sheath is destroyed (possibly by the individual's own immune system), which leads to diminished or complete loss of neural functioning in those damaged cells. Early symptoms of MS may include fatigue, changes in vision, balance problems, and numbness, tingling, or muscle weakness in the arms or legs. ** Structure and function of Brain** The brain has many structures and functions, including: **Lobes** The brain has four lobes in each hemisphere: **Frontal lobe**: Controls thinking, planning, problem-solving, short-term memory, and movement. It also controls personality and emotions. **Parietal lobe**: Helps interpret sensory information, such as taste, texture, and temperature. It\'s also involved with attention and language. **Occipital lobe**: Processes images from the eyes, including recognition of shapes and colors. **Temporal lobe**: Helps process information from the senses of smell, taste, and sound. It also plays a role in memory storage. **Hemispheres** The brain is divided into left and right hemispheres. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and is usually responsible for speech and language functions. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and is usually responsible for processing visual and spatial information. **Cerebellum** Located in the back of the brain, the cerebellum maintains balance, posture, coordination, and fine motor skills. **Brainstem** Located in the lower part of the brain, the brainstem regulates many automatic body functions, like heart rate, breathing, sleep and wake cycles, and swallowing. **Ventricles** The ventricles are four open areas deep in the brain that manufacture cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF surrounds and cushions the brain and spinal cord, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients. **Hypothalamus** The hypothalamus translates emotion into physical response. When strong feelings are generated, the hypothalamus may send signals for physiological changes. The brain is made up of neurons, the fundamental unit of the brain and nervous system. An adult brain weighs between 1.0 kg -- 1.5 kg and contains anywhere between 86 billion to 100 billion neurons. Nervous system The nervous system is a network of nerve cells and tissues that controls and coordinates the body\'s activities: **Function** The nervous system allows the body to communicate with the outside world and control internal mechanisms. It receives sensory information, processes it, and triggers reactions, such as movement or pain. **Parts** The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system: **Central nervous system (CNS)**: Includes the brain and spinal cord, which receive, process, and respond to sensory information. **Peripheral nervous system**: Includes nerves that extend from the spinal cord to the rest of the body. **Building blocks** The basic unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell, or neuron. Neurons have a cell body, axons, and dendrites. Bundles of axons are called nerves. **Communication** Neurons communicate with each other using electrical and chemical signals. Messages jump from one neuron to the next across synapses, which are the spaces between the bumps on the axon and the dendrites of other neurons. **Protection** The brain is protected by the skull, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid. The brain also has a blood-brain barrier that prevents harmful substances in the blood from reaching the brain. ** Cognition: Understanding Human Behaviour** Cognition is the mental processes that help people learn, understand, and think, and is thought to be a determinant of behaviour. It\'s a vital part of daily life, allowing people to interact with their environment and understand the world around them. Some examples of cognitive processes include: Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes cause behaviour, and that faulty thought processes and cognitive distortions can lead to maladaptive behaviour. Understanding human behaviour can help people improve their relationships and address problems more compassionately. Some ways to study human behaviour include: **Biosensor research** Using tools like galvanic skin response (GSR), electroencephalography (EEG), eye tracking, and facial expression analysis to measure a person\'s physiological responses **Module 3 Consciousness** Aspects of consciousness **States of Consciousness** Consciousness is defined as our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment (Koch, 2004). The experience of consciousness is fundamental to human nature. We all know what it means to be conscious, and we assume (although we can never be sure) that other human beings experience their consciousness similarly to how we experience ours. The study of consciousness has long been important to psychologists and plays a role in many important psychological theories. For instance, Sigmund Freud's personality theories differentiated between the unconscious and the conscious aspects of behaviour, and present-day psychologists distinguish between automatic (unconscious) and controlled (conscious) behaviours and between implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory (Petty, Wegener, Chaiken, & Trope, 1999; Shanks, 2005). Some philosophers and religious practices argue that the mind (or soul) and the body are separate entities. For instance, the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), shown in Figure 6.1, was a proponent of dualism, the idea that the mind, a nonmaterial entity, is separate from (although connected to) the physical body. In contrast to the dualists, psychologists believe that consciousness (and thus the mind) exists in the brain, not separate from it. In fact, psychologists believe that consciousness is the result of the activity of the many neural connections in the brain, and that we experience different states of consciousness depending on what our brain is currently doing (Dennett, 1991; Koch & Greenfield, 2007). The study of consciousness is also important to the fundamental psychological question regarding the presence of free will. Although we may understand and believe that some of our behaviours are caused by forces that are outside our awareness (i.e., unconscious), we nevertheless believe that we have control over, and are aware that we are engaging in, most of our behaviours. To discover that we have, or someone else has, engaged in a complex behaviour, such as driving in a car and causing severe harm to others, without being at all conscious of these actions, is so unusual as to be shocking. And yet psychologists are increasingly certain that a great deal of our behaviour is caused by processes of which we are unaware and over which we have little or no control (Libet, 1999; Wegner, 2003). Our experience of consciousness is functional because we use it to guide and control our behaviour, and to think logically about problems (DeWall, Baumeister, & Masicampo, 2008). Consciousness allows us to plan activities and to monitor our progress toward the goals we set for ourselves. And consciousness is fundamental to our sense of morality --- we believe that we have the free will to perform moral actions while avoiding immoral behaviours. But in some cases consciousness may become aversive --- for instance, when we become aware that we are not living up to our own goals or expectations, or when we believe that other people perceive us negatively. In these cases we may engage in behaviours that help us escape from consciousness; for example, through the use of alcohol or other psychoactive drugs (Baumeister, 1998). Because the brain varies in its current level and type of activity, consciousness is transitory. If we drink too much coffee or beer, the caffeine or alcohol influences the activity in our brain, and our consciousness may change. When we are anesthetized before an operation or experience a concussion after a knock on the head, we may lose consciousness entirely as a result of changes in brain activity. We also lose consciousness when we sleep, and it is with this altered state of consciousness that we begin our chapter. Consciousness is the individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environments. Essentially, your consciousness is your awareness of yourself and the world around you. This awareness is subjective and unique to you. If you can describe something you are experiencing in words, then it is part of your consciousness. Your conscious experiences are constantly shifting and changing. For example, in one moment, you may be focused on reading this article. Your consciousness may then shift to the memory of a conversation you had earlier with a co-worker. Next, you might notice how uncomfortable your chair is, or maybe you are mentally planning dinner. **The various states of consciousness include:** Dreams Hallucinations Hypnosis Meditation Sleep States induced by psychoactive drugs The two normal states of awareness are consciousness and unconsciousness. Higher states of consciousness are often associated with spiritual or mystical experiences. It involves an elevated state of awareness where people are able to gain a greater sense of themselves, their role, and the world. Examples of this include transcendence, meditation, mindfulness, a \"runner\'s high,\" lucid dreaming, and flow states. Altered levels of consciousness also can occur, which may be caused by medical or mental conditions that impair or change awareness. **Altered types of consciousness include:** Coma Confusion Delirium Disorientation Lethargy Stupor **What Are the 5 Levels of Consciousness?** 1\. Conscious: Everything you are aware of 2\. Preconscious: Information you are not currently aware of that you can pull into awareness if needed 3\. Unconscious: Memories that are outside of awareness and inaccessible 4. Non-conscious: Automatically bodily functions that occur without awareness and sensation 5\. Subconscious: Information that is out of consciousness and not immediately available to consciousness **Functions of Consciousness** Consciousness has several biological and social purposes. For example, it allows us to process information, choose our actions, set priorities, learn and adapt to new information, make decisions, and more. 2 Consciousness is an essential state in philosophy, spirituality, and religion. All of these require self-awareness, which is impossible without consciousness. **Changes in Consciousness** Understanding different levels of consciousness can help healthcare professionals spot signs that someone might be experiencing a problem. Some of these changes occur naturally; others are the result of factors such as drugs or brain damage. Changes to consciousness also can cause changes to perception, thinking, understanding, and interpretations of the world. **History of Consciousness** For thousands of years, the study of human consciousness was largely the work of philosophers. The French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the concept of mind-body dualism or the idea that while the mind and body are separate, they do interact. Once psychology was established as a discipline separate from philosophy and biology, the study of the conscious experience became one of the first topics studied by early psychologists. Structuralists used a process known as introspection to analyse and report conscious sensations, thoughts, and experiences. Trained observers would carefully inspect the contents of their own minds. Obviously, this was a very subjective process, but it helped inspire further research on the scientific study of consciousness. Consciousness is our awareness of ourselves and our surroundings. It involves: 1\. Monitoring: Paying attention to our thoughts, feelings, and sensations, as well as the world around us. 2\. Controlling: Making choices and taking actions based on our awareness. In essence, consciousness allows us to perceive, think, and act in a purposeful way (Kihlstrom, 2007). **Preconscious memories** Preconscious memories are those that are not currently in your conscious awareness but can be easily recalled when needed. Here are a few examples: Your childhood home address: You might not think about it regularly, but you can likely recall it easily if asked. The lyrics to a song you haven\'t heard in years: If you hear a snippet of the song, you might be able to recall the rest of the lyrics. The name of your elementary school teacher: While you might not think about them often, you can probably remember their name if prompted. A specific event from your past: You might not actively remember it, but a certain smell or sound could trigger a vivid memory of a past experience. **The unconscious** Freud believed that some emotionally painful memories and wishes are repressed -- that is, diverted to the unconscious, where they may continue to influence our actions even though we are not aware of them. Repressed thoughts and impulses cannot enter our consciousness, but they can affect us in indirect or disguised ways -- through dreams, irrational behaviors, mannerisms, and slips of the tongue. The term Freudian slip is commonly used to refer to unintentional remarks that are assumed to reveal hidden impulses. Saying, 'I'm sad you're better' when you intended to say, 'I'm glad you're better' is an example of such a slip. Freud believed that unconscious desires and impulses are the cause of most mental illnesses. He developed the method of psychoanalysis, which attempts to draw the repressed material back into consciousness and, in so doing, **Automaticity and Dissociation** Automaticity is when we perform tasks without conscious thought. It\'s like on autopilot. For example, driving a familiar route or tying your shoes. You do it so often that you don\'t need to think about every step. Dissociation is a bit more complex. It\'s when your mind separates from your body or emotions. It\'s like zoning out or feeling disconnected. For instance, you might be so focused on work that you don\'t notice the time passing. Or, after a traumatic event, you might feel numb or detached. Together, automaticity and dissociation can be seen in everyday life: Driving while on the phone: You might be so focused on the conversation that you\'re driving on autopilot, potentially ignoring traffic signals or hazards. This is a combination of automaticity (driving) and dissociation (being distracted by the call). Daydreaming: When you\'re daydreaming, your mind is wandering away from the present moment. This is a form of dissociation. Performing a well-practiced skill: Athletes often reach a state of \"flow\" where they\'re so focused on the task that they\'re almost unconscious of their actions. This is a combination of automaticity and dissociation. Freud argued that certain desires or thoughts remain in the unconscious because making them conscious arouses anxiety in the individual. What might be some other reasons that certain desires or thoughts might remain out of conscious awareness to us? A young woman, raised in a conservative family, has always dreamed of becoming a rock musician. However, she feels pressure from her family and friends to pursue a more traditional career path, like law or medicine. Despite her desire to follow her passion, she finds herself constantly doubting her abilities and feeling guilty about wanting to pursue something that goes against societal expectations. Analysis: In this situation, the young woman\'s unconscious desire to pursue a career in rock music is likely being suppressed due to a combination of factors: Social pressure: The expectations of her family and friends can create a sense of obligation to conform. Cultural norms: Societal stereotypes about women in rock music might make her feel like she doesn\'t fit in. Fear of failure: Doubting her abilities can lead her to believe that pursuing her dream is unrealistic. Guilt: Feeling guilty about wanting something that goes against societal expectations can further suppress her desire. A person's perceptions, thoughts, and feelings at any given moment constitute that person's consciousness. l An altered state of consciousness is said to exist when mental functioning seems changed or out of the ordinary to the person experiencing the state. Some altered states of consciousness, such as sleep and dreams, are experienced by everyone; others result from special circumstances, such as meditation, hypnosis, or drug use. l The functions of consciousness are (1) monitoring ourselves and our environment so that we are aware of what is happening within our bodies and in our surroundings and (2) controlling our actions so that they are coordinated with events in the outside world. Not all events that influence consciousness are at the center of our awareness at a given moment. Memories of personal events and accumulated knowledge, which are accessible but are not currently part of a person's consciousness, are called preconscious memories. Events that affect behavior, even though we are not aware of perceiving them, influence us subconsciously. l According to psychoanalytic theory, some emotionally painful memories and impulses are not available to consciousness because they have been repressed -- that is, diverted to the unconscious. Unconscious thoughts and impulses influence our behavior even though they reach consciousness only in indirect ways -- through dreams, irrational behavior, and slips of the tongue. l The notion of automaticity refers to the habituation of responses that initially required conscious attention, such as driving a car. SLEEP AND DREAMS The phenomenon of dreaming indicates that we think while we sleep, although the type of thinking we do in dreams differs in various ways from the type we do while awake. We form memories while sleeping, as we know from the fact that we can remember dreams. Sleep is not entirely latent/ passive/ quiet: Some people walk in their sleep. People who are asleep are not entirely insensitive to their environment: Parents are awakened by their baby's cry. Nor is sleep entirely planless: Some people can decide to wake at a given time and do so. Stages of Sleep  **Electrophysiological Activity During Sleep**. The image shows an EEG (electroencephalogram) recording of brain activity during different stages of sleep. Each line represents a different stage: Awake: Brain activity is fast and irregular, indicating wakefulness. REM sleep: Brain activity is similar to awake, but there is a loss of muscle tone. This is the stage where most vivid dreams occur. Stage 1: Transition from wakefulness to sleep. Brain activity slows down, but there may be brief periods of wakefulness. Stage 2: Light sleep. Brain activity continues to slow down, with occasional bursts of electrical activity called spindles and K complexes. Stage 3: Deep sleep. Brain activity is dominated by delta waves, which are slow, large waves. This is the stage where it is most difficult to wake someone. Stage 4: The deepest stage of sleep, also dominated by delta waves. REM and NREM sleep differ in several ways, including brain activity, eye movement, and duration: Brain activity During REM sleep, brain activity is similar to when you\'re awake, while during NREM sleep, brain activity is decreased. Eye movement During REM sleep, your eyes move rapidly behind your eyelids in short bursts. During NREM sleep, eye movements stop. Duration REM sleep makes up about 20--25% of your total sleep time, while NREM sleep makes up about 75--80%. Function REM sleep is associated with dreaming, memory consolidation, emotional processing, and brain development. NREM sleep is associated with memory consolidation, tissue repair, bone building, muscle repair, and immune system support. Cycle length The first NREM-REM sleep cycle is usually 70--100 minutes long, while later cycles are about 90--120 minutes long. Sleep stages NREM sleep is divided into three stages: N1, N2, and N3. REM sleep has two phases: phasic REM sleep, where your eyes move rapidly, and tonic REM sleep, where your ees don\'t move raidl. Sleep Disorders Overview What Are Sleep Disorders? Problems with sleeping well, leading to daytime issues. Common Types Sleep Deprivation, Insomnia, Narcolepsy, and Sleep Apnea. Sleep Deprivation- Not getting enough sleep regularly. Examples Students falling asleep in class. Drivers dozing off while driving. Pilots feeling fatigued during long flights.\* Consequences Increased mistakes, accidents, and health issues. Relatable Example- Struggling to stay awake during a boring lecture. Insomnia- Difficulty falling or staying asleep. Subjective vs. Objective Some feel they can\'t sleep, but may sleep normally. Common Misconception People often overestimate how little they sleep. Relatable Example- Lying awake at night worrying instead of sleeping. Narcolepsy- Sudden, uncontrollable episodes of deep sleep. Example: Falling asleep during a meeting without warning. Sleep Apnea- Breathing interruptions during sleep. Example: Loud snoring and frequent waking at night. Understanding Dreams Do We Know When We\'re Dreaming?- Sometimes yes, especially with lucid dreaming. Lucid Dreams- Being aware you\'re dreaming and can sometimes control the dream. Example: Deciding to fly in your dream. Theories of Dreaming Freud's Theory- Dreams are a way to fulfill hidden wishes. Example: Dreaming about flying might represent a desire for freedom. Modern Perspectives Dreams help process daily information and emotions. Example: Dreaming about a stressful day helps you cope with it. Continuity Theory of Dreaming- Dreams reflect our waking thoughts and concerns. Evidence Parents dreaming about their children. Dreaming about a big exam when you\'re stressed about school. Dreaming: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IrwH45qxuQE&t=67s ]  Do students feel their dreams conform to the theory that proposes that items appearing in dreams are random and have no coherent meaning? Is it necessary or relevant to bother interpreting dreams at all? Last, students should think of issues and problems they are currently facing and decide whether or not these issues are being reflected in their dreams. Are dreams really a way of working out issues that are troubling the dreamer? Hypnosisis a state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility. During hypnosis, individuals enter a relaxed state where their conscious mind becomes less active, allowing for greater access to the unconscious mind. Key Points: Unconscious Mind: This part of our mind stores memories, beliefs, and emotions that influence our behavior and thoughts without conscious awareness. Conscious Mind: This is the part of our mind that is actively engaged in our present moment experiences. Hypnosis and Memory: Hypnosis can help individuals access and potentially modify stored memories in the unconscious mind. This can be beneficial for therapeutic purposes, such as overcoming phobias or trauma. Hypnosis and Self: By accessing the unconscious mind, individuals can gain insights into their deepest thoughts, feelings, and motivations, leading to greater self awareness and personal growth. **Module 4 Stress, Health and Well-being** Stress and Stressors Stress can affect your health in many ways, both physically and emotionally. Stress can cause: ∙ **Physical symptoms** Headaches, high blood pressure, chest pain, fatigue, upset stomach, ulcers, and cardiovascular disease ∙ **Emotional symptoms** Anxiety, depression, panic attacks, irritability, anger, and feeling overwhelmed ∙ **Other symptoms** Forgetfulness, lack of energy, sexual problems, trouble sleeping, and weight loss or gain Stress can also make existing health conditions worse. However, not all stress is harmful. Some stressors, called eustress, can be positive and have benefits like boosting energy and cognitive function. Here are some ways to manage stress: **Stress is categorized into various types based on duration, source, and response.** ∙ Acute stress: The short-term stress that typically results from immediate stressors or challenging situations. The body\'s fight-or-flight response leads to temporary physiological changes such as increased heart rate and adrenaline release. ∙ Chronic stress: This occurs when the stressor persists over an extended period. Prolonged exposure to chronic stress can lead to cumulative physiological and psychological effects, increasing the risk of health problems such as cardiovascular disease, anxiety, and depression. ∙ Episodic acute stress: The stress occurs when individuals experience frequent episodes of acute stress. This pattern may be characteristic of individuals who lead chaotic or disorganized lifestyles, constantly facing deadlines, commitments, or interpersonal conflicts. The cycle of stress exacerbates health issues and impairs daily functioning. ∙ Traumatic stress: This type results from exposure to traumatic events, such as natural disasters, accidents, or violent acts. The trauma overwhelms an individual\'s ability to cope and may lead to symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), including intrusive memories, avoidance behaviors, and hyperarousal. ∙ Environmental stress: This type arises from adverse or challenging conditions in one\'s surroundings, including noise, pollution, overcrowding, or unsafe living conditions. These stressors can have detrimental effects on physical and mental health, contributing to a sense of discomfort or unease. ∙ Psychological stress: The stress stems from cognitive or emotional factors, such as perceived threats, worries, or negative thoughts. Typical stressors include work related pressures, academic expectations, social comparisons, or self-imposed demands. Manifestations include anxiety, rumination, or perfectionism. ∙ Physiological stress: Physiological stress refers to the body\'s response to internal or external stressors that disrupt homeostasis. Examples include illness, injury, sleep deprivation, or nutritional deficiencies, which activate physiological stress pathways and compromise health and well-being **Organ Systems Involved** Stress generally affects all body systems, including cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, gastrointestinal, nervous, muscular, and reproductive systems. The endocrine system increases the production of steroid hormones, including cortisol, to activate the body\'s stress response. In the nervous system, stress triggers the sympathetic nervous system, prompting the adrenal glands to release catecholamine's. Once the acute stress-induced crisis subsides, the parasympathetic nervous system aids in the body\'s recovery. **Cardiovascular System** Acute stress causes an increase in heart rate, stronger heart muscle contractions, dilation of the heart, and redirection of blood to large muscles. In contrast, chronic stress induces sustained activation of the sympathetic nervous system and HPA axis, leading to elevated levels of stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine. The presence of these stress hormones promotes oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and inflammation, thereby promoting the development of atherosclerosis and compromising vascular function. Moreover, stress-related alterations in lipid metabolism also contribute to dyslipidaemia, exacerbating cardiovascular risk. **Respiratory System** The respiratory and cardiovascular systems play crucial roles in supplying oxygen to the body\'s cells and eliminating carbon dioxide waste. Acute or chronic stress triggers dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system. This dysregulation can lead to a cascade of physiological effects, inducing bronchial hyper responsiveness and inflammation. More importantly, acute stress can result in changes in breathing patterns due to airway constriction, leading to shortness of breath and rapid shallow breathing, exacerbating respiratory symptoms. Chronic stress also compromises immune function, increasing susceptibility to respiratory infections and exacerbating conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Furthermore, stress-induced alterations in inflammatory cytokines contribute to airway inflammation and mucus production. **Gastrointestinal System** Catecholamine's, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, released during stress profoundly affect the gastrointestinal system. These hormones bind to adrenergic receptors distributed throughout the gastrointestinal tract, influencing various physiological processes. By activating α-adrenergic receptors in the smooth muscle of the intestines, they cause delayed gastric emptying and reduced intestinal transit (motility).\] Vasoconstriction in the gastrointestinal vasculature through α-adrenergic receptor activation reduces blood flow to the gut, thus inhibiting gastrointestinal secretions and nutrient absorption. Stress-induced changes in gut motility can manifest as diarrhea or constipation, whereas increased visceral sensitivity may contribute to symptoms such as irritable bowel syndrome. In addition, stress impairs the integrity of the gastrointestinal mucosal barrier, leading to increased permeability and susceptibility to inflammation and infection. Dysregulation of the gut-brain axis, mediated by stress, exacerbates gastrointestinal disorders and can worsen symptoms through bidirectional communication between the central nervous system and the gut microbiota.Furthermore, stress-related alterations in gut microbiota composition and diversity can further contribute to gastrointestinal dysfunction, highlighting the intricate interplay between stress and gastrointestinal health. **Musculoskeletal System** Chronic stress elicits a cascade of physiological responses, including increased secretion of stress hormones such as cortisol and catecholamines, which impact the musculoskeletal system. Prolonged exposure to elevated levels of cortisol can lead to muscle wasting and decreased bone density by inhibiting osteoblast activity and promoting osteoclast function. In addition, activation of the stress-induced sympathetic nervous system can exacerbate musculoskeletal tension and contribute to conditions such as tension headaches, temporomandibular joint disorders, prolonged recovery from musculoskeletal injuries, and risk of developing conditions, including fibromyalgia and low back pain. **Immune System** When exposure to stress is chronic, the sympathetic nervous system, including the HPA axis, is activated, which can suppress innate and adaptive immune responses. Prolonged elevation of cortisol levels suppresses immune function by inhibiting the production of pro inflammatory cytokines and reducing the activity of immune cells, particularly lymphocytes. This immunosuppressive effect can increase infection susceptibility, delay wound healing, and exacerbate inflammatory conditions. In addition, chronic stress promotes systemic inflammation through the upregulation of inflammatory mediators, contributing to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammatory disorders. **Reproductive System** Chronic stress can disrupt the delicate balance of the reproductive axis by suppressing the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, which subsequently reduces the release of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland. Consequently, this disruption impairs ovarian function in women and reduces testosterone production in men. Chronic stress can also lead to menstrual irregularities, anovulation, and infertility in women, and impaired sexual desire, erectile dysfunction, and decreased sperm quality in men. In addition, stress-induced alterations in sex hormone levels and impaired reproductive function may contribute to conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome and male hypogonadism. **Managing stress** **Here are some ways to manage stress:** ∙ **Exercise**: Physical activity can help improve your mood and maintain stress levels. The World Health Organization recommends that adults get 75--150 minutes of physical activity per week. ∙ **Sleep**: Stress can make it hard to fall asleep, and lack of sleep can increase stress levels. To sleep better, you can try turning off electronics, creating a soothing environment, and reading a book or taking a warm bath. ∙ **Eat well**: A healthy diet can help with stress management. You can try eating more fresh fruits and vegetables, and cutting back on fatty foods, caffeine, and sugar. ∙ **Practice relaxation techniques**: You can try deep breathing, meditation, yoga, tai chi, or massage. ∙ **Relax your muscles**: Stress can cause muscles to tense, which can lead to tension headaches, backaches, and fatigue. You can try stretches, massage, or warm baths to combat stress and these symptoms. ∙ **Build a support network**: You can try asking others to help or assist you, or maintaining emotionally supportive relationships. **Module 5 - Psychological Disorders &Therapies** Abnormality Types of Disorders Treatment of Mental Health Problems Applying Psychology to everyday life **Here are some topics related to psychological disorders and therapy:** ∙ **Types of disorders** There are more than 200 types of mental health disorders, including anxiety disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and schizophrenia. ∙ **Treatment** Treatment for mental health disorders can include psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both. Psychotherapy can be done with an individual, a family, or a group. The length of treatment depends on the severity of the disorder, and can range from a few visits to a few years. ∙ **Anxiety disorders** Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive fear or worry, and can include generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety disorder. ∙ **Eating disorders** Treatment for eating disorders can include talk therapy, nutritional counseling, and medications. ∙ **ADHD** ADHD is a disorder that is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. It is often treated with prescription medications, such as stimulants like Ritalin. ∙ **Mental illness and loved ones** Mental illness can affect the lives of family members and loved ones, who may experience emotions like anxiety, anger, frustration, or sadness. The term [psychological disorders] is sometimes used to refer to what are more frequently known as mental disorders or psychiatric disorders. Mental disorders are patterns of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These disorders create distress for the person experiencing the symptoms. Psychological disorders are not just conditions but experiences affecting a person\'s day-to-day well-being. *\"Imagine waking up one day and feeling paralyzed by overwhelming emotions---like Hazel did. One moment she's fine, and the next, it feels like her world is collapsing.* *This is the reality for many who suffer from mental disorders.\"* **Communication Disorders** These disorders are those that impact the ability to use, understand, or detect language and speech. There are four different subtypes of communication disorders: \(i) Language disorder \(ii) Speech sound disorder (iii)Childhood onset fluency disorder(stuttering) \(iv) Social (pragmatic) communication disorder [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhp83mZ6bLI ] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Jk3AtlfWKQ] (stuttering) \"Remember King George VI's speech struggles in *The King's Speech*? That\'s a classic example of a communication disorder---specifically stuttering. The inability to speak fluently can limit day-to-day functioning, which was portrayed vividly in the movie.\" **1. Language Disorder:** **Definition:** A language disorder affects a person\'s ability to understand or use spoken or written language. This can include difficulties with vocabulary, grammar, or sentence structure. **Example:** A child with a language disorder might struggle to understand complex sentences, use correct grammar, or express their thoughts clearly. **2. Speech Sound Disorder:** **Definition:** A speech sound disorder, also known as articulation disorder, affects a person\'s ability to produce sounds correctly. This can lead to difficulties with pronunciation and intelligibility. **Example:** A child with a speech sound disorder might mispronounce sounds like \"r\" or \"s\" or substitute one sound for another. Leaving out sounds. A child might say \"car\" instead of \"scar.\" **3. Childhood Onset Fluency Disorder (Stuttering):** **Definition:** Stuttering is characterized by interruptions in the flow of speech, such as repetitions, prolongations, or blocks. It can be a source of anxiety and embarrassment for those who stutter. **Example:** A child with stuttering might repeat words or syllables, or have difficulty getting words out. **4. Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder:** **Definition:** Social (pragmatic) communication disorder affects a person\'s ability to use language effectively in social situations. This can include difficulties with understanding and using nonverbal communication, following social rules, or telling stories. **Example:** A child with social (pragmatic) communication disorder might struggle to take turns in conversations, understand sarcasm or humor, or initiate social interactions. Most of us feel anxious and tense in the face of threatening or stressful situations. Such feelings are normal reactions to stress. Anxiety is considered unhealthy only when it occurs in situations that most people can handle with little difficulty. **Anxiety disorders** Anxiety disorders include a group of disorders in which anxiety either is the main symptom(generalized anxiety and panic disorders) or is experienced when the individual attempts to control certain maladaptive behaviours (phobic and obsessive compulsive disorders) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QLjPrNe63kk ] First day of the job *\"Ever felt your heart race before a big presentation or a job interview? Imagine feeling that level of panic in everyday situations, like walking down the street. That's what living with anxiety disorders feels like for many people.\"* One feels they are *having a heart attack when in reality, it was a panic attack.\"* Hazel was walking down a street near her home one day when she suddenly felt flooded with intense and frightening physical symptoms. Her whole body tightened up, she began sweating and her heart was racing, and she felt dizzy and disoriented. She thought, 'I must be having a heart attack! I can't stand this! Something terrible is happening! I'm going to die.' Hazel just stood frozen in the middle of the street until an onlooker stopped to help her. **Panic disorders** Hazel's symptoms suggest that she experienced a panic attack -- an episode of acute and overwhelming apprehension or terror. During panic attacks, the individual feels certain that something dreadful is about to happen. This feeling is usually accompanied by such symptoms as heart palpitations, shortness of breath, perspiration, muscle tremors, faintness, and nausea. **[Characteristics of Schizophrenia ]** Symptoms of schizophrenia include psychotic symptoms such as \(i) Hallucinations (seem to see, hear, feel, or smell something that does not exist, usually because of a health condition or because you have taken a drug delusions) (ii) Thought disorder (unusual ways of thinking) \(iii) Reduced expression of emotions \(iv) Reduced motivation to accomplish goals \(v) Difficulty in social relationships, motor impairment, and cognitive impairment. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehhy-\_Cg4QU] **Beautiful mind** **[The Most Common Personality Disorders ]** Antisocial personality disorder. Avoidant personality disorder. Dependent personality disorder. Narcissistic personality disorder. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Paranoid personality disorder. Think of the character Sheldon Cooper from *The Big Bang Theory*. While it's debatable whether he has obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), his rigid routines and perfectionism provide a relatable look into how someone might behave - Antisocial Personality Disorder: A pattern of disregarding or violating others\' rights, often involving deceit, manipulation, or criminal behavior. - Avoidant Personality Disorder: Extreme sensitivity to rejection, leading to social inhibition and avoidance of interpersonal interactions. - Dependent Personality Disorder: Excessive reliance on others for emotional support and decision-making. - Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Inflated sense of self-importance and a deep need for admiration, often lacking empathy for others. - Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: Preoccupation with order, perfectionism, and control, leading to rigidity in behavior. - Paranoid Personality Disorder: Persistent mistrust and suspicion of others, even without sufficient reason. [https://www.youtubecom/watch?v=C5J6KA-0z\_U] Anxiety [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6uPdZTiGoGc ] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fMpjENF1VDc ] English teacher **Social anxiety disorders** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VdoSgPRe\_gw ] A chronic mental health condition in which social interactions cause irrational anxiety. For people with social anxiety disorder, everyday social interactions cause irrational anxiety, fear, self-consciousness and embarrassment. Symptoms may include excessive fear of situations in which one may be judged, worry about embarrassment or humiliation or concern about offending someone. Talk therapy and antidepressants can help increase confidence and improve ability to interact with others. **AUTISM** Autism -- also referred to as autism spectrum disorder ̶constitutes a diverse group of conditions related to development of the brain. About 1 in 100 children have autism. Characteristics may be detected in early childhood, but autism is often not diagnosed until much later. The abilities and needs of autistic people vary and can evolve over time. While some people with autism can live independently, others have severe disabilities and require life-long care and support. Evidence-based psychosocial interventions can improve communication and social skills, with a positive impact on the well-being and quality of life of both autistic people and their caregivers. Care for people with autism needs to be accompanied by actions at community and societal levels for greater accessibility, inclusivity and support. Thanks to movements like \#SeeTheAble- People like Temple Grandin, an animal science professor who also has autism, have shown that with the right support, people on the spectrum can lead impactful lives **Bipolar disorder** (formerly called manic-depressive illness or manic depression) is a mental illness that causes unusual shifts in a person\'s mood, energy, activity levels, and concentration. (**Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) is a psychiatric disorder** that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event, series of events or set of circumstances. An individual may experience this as emotionally or physically harmful or life-threatening and may affect mental, physical, social, and/or spiritual well-being. Examples include natural disasters, serious accidents, terrorist acts, war/combat, rape/sexual assault, historical trauma, intimate partner violence and bullying etc. Many soldiers returning from combat experience PTSD, haunted by the horrors of war. But it's not just war---survivors of natural disasters or personal tragedies like domestic violence can also experience long-lasting effects. **Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder** (ADHD) is one of the most common mental disorders affecting children. Symptoms of ADHD include inattention (not being able to keep focus), hyperactivity (excess movement that is not fitting to the setting) and impulsivity (hasty acts that occur in the moment without thought). Imagine starting five different tasks at once but never finishing any of them--- that's a glimpse into the mind of someone with ADHD. It's not just about being distracted; it's about living in a world that constantly pulls you in different directions **Insomnia** is a sleep disorder in which you have trouble falling and/or staying asleep. The condition can be short-term (acute) or can last a long time (chronic). It may also come and go. Acute insomnia lasts from 1 night to a few weeks. Insomnia is chronic when it happens at least 3 nights a week for 3 months or more. **Module 6 Development & Social Psychology** Hereditary & Environment The development of a human is based on various factors, two of which are most defining for an individual -- Heredity, and Environment. Heredity and environment are among the most critical aspects of child development. These two parameters define how we grow and how we turn out to be. A debate on the importance of Heredity & Environment is often conducted and is very prominent. Over time studies have shown that we are the part and combination of both heredity and environment. There two aspects further widely elucidate the concept of nature and nurture. Both heredity and environment have positive and negative effects on the development of children. These two complement each other. They also have vast significance from the educational point of view. It helps teachers to make the teaching-learning process more effective. **Meaning of Heredity** Heredity is the science where we study the impacts of genetic factors on our behaviour and development. How they are transmitted from one generation to another and how they impact the human. In other words, we can say that Heredity can define as the transmission of genetic traits from parents to their children. It depends upon the separation and recombination of genes during the process of fertilization. Through heredity, physical mental, and social qualities are transfer to the children. **Principles of Heredity** There have been many studies on heredity. Based on these studies, some theories have been proposed. The details of which are as follows. **1. Principle of regression:** The principle state that intelligent parents may have less bright offsprings and beautiful parents may have less beautiful offsprings. **2. Principle of resemblance:** This principle advocates the philosophy of 'like begets like.' It says that offspring resemble his\\her parents and will have similar traits. For example, intelligent parents will have smart children, while beautiful parents will have beautiful children. **3. Principle of variation:** This principle opposes the second principle. Cit says that offspring may not resemble his\\her parents, and thus, there will be variation in traits. This difference is very common in every individual. Therefore, every individual is very different in one or in other ways. For example, it is not necessarily correct all the time beautiful parents have beautiful children. Also, sometimes dull parents may have intelligent children. **4. Principle of continuity:** Bijemann has formulated this theory as a result of his studies. According to him, the original bacteria that make up the body are never destroyed; it is transferred from one generation to the next generation by the sperm, which has the characteristic of being transferred. That is why a person has his ancestor's qualities embedded in him for several generations. **5. Principle of Transformation of Traits:** According to this theory, parents earned qualities do not transfer to their children. Only those qualities which are present in genes can be transferred. So the question is, can we add new qualities to genes. Generally, the answer is no Only after a continuous process of hundreds or thousands of years can we add or reduce the qualities in our genes. **Meaning and definition of Environment:** The definition of the environment is the circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded. The living thing or man is surrounded by water, vegetation, mountain, plateau, thing, etc. All these together create the environment. The environment has a significant impact on the development of human life. As much as heredity contributes to human life, so is the environment. Therefore, some psychologists also refer to the environment as social heredity. Behavioural psychologists value the environment more than heredity. **Type of Environment:** The environment can be classified into the following type. **1. Natural environment:** It refers to the combination of all living and non-living things that exist on earth. It comprises a set of natural resources that human beings are magma, plants, animals, etc. All these elements of natural resources affect the development of a child to a large extent. **2. Intellectual or mental environment:** It refers to the sum of all social influences that affect the mental health of a child. The mental environment comprises forces that affect the thought process of a child and can dominate his/her mind. Knowledge is the only aspect that is considered unaffected by the mental environment. Therefore, it can have a high impact on child development. **3. Emotional environment:** It refers to the responsiveness that a child receives from his/her family, friend, and immediate vicinity. Parents play a vital role when it comes to shaping the emotional environment of a child. This is because parents are the closest to their child; thus, their love, care, and support will have a high impact on the development of a child. **4. Social or cultural environment:** It refers to a set of behaviours, principles, ethics, customs, and practices followed by a group of people. A child learns social and cultural value as he/she grows up. Therefore, social or cultural environment plays a vital role in the development of the child. **Heredity vs. Environment:** The impact of heredity and environment on child development cannot be denied. Both are equally essential for child development. Now the equation arises which influences the life of a child first and how long? The explanation justifies that the heredity begins the movement of the zygote form from a fertilized egg. Thus, it starts much before a child even born. The traits are transmitted into a new child through genes and chromosomes. However, the environment also impacts the child before he/she is born. It is in the form of diseases, medicines, pollution, smoke, and nutrients taken by a mother. For example, the intake of smoke, antibiotics, and drugs by a mother can harm the child and have an adverse effect on him/her even before birth. However, the major part of the environment begins when a child is born. Fundamentally, heredity and environment work together in the development of a child. The role of the environment ideally starts with the birth of a child. The environment ideally begins with the birth of a child. The purpose of the environment can shape a child that is in contrast with his /her genetic traits. For example, a child of a monk or noble parents. Consequently, both heredity and environment play their roles through the life of a child. **[INFLUENCE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT ]** Heredity and environment greatly influence the growth, development and behaviour of a child, each child inherits certain capacities for growth. The way in which these capacities develop is influenced by the opportunities afforded by the environment, for example, the height to which the individual is capable of growing is determined by heredity. The environment cannot change the limits imposed by heredity. Whereas a poor environment, lack of exposure will slow down a child who is genetically clever, a rich environment which provides and exposes a child to a lot of educational facilities will not change a child who is genetically born not clever to become clever. A good environment will enable the individual to reach these limits. The environment influences the speed with which the child develops. The environment shapes the individual's development in the sense that it promotes the growth of certain capacities and neglects the growth of others. For instance, if the child experiences more emphasis on academic and no attachment to physical education, the child's capacity to develop certain skills will be neglected **[Effects of Heredity and Environment on Development of Personality ]** The term heredity may also be used in another sense, for example, if a child is brought up in a particular social environment say of a tribe, the value of that tribe and the norms of that tribe are inculcated in him through other members of that social group and we call it social heredity. In the same way, a student in a classroom situation brings with him a specific cultural heredity also. Here our discussion will be focused on the influence of only biological heredity on individual differences. Each individual has a specific set of potentials which are developed through the environment. Hereditary, or the genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring, determine personality to a certain extent. Hereditary characteristics manifest at birth such as hair and eye colour, skin colour and body type. Hereditary also includes aptitude or the capacity to learn a skill or inclination for a particular body of knowledge. It establishes the limits of one's personality traits that can be developed. These potentialities and characteristics possessed by the individual are the result of his biological heredity. The influence of heredity is so strong that twins brought up in dramatically different environments show very much similarity in terms of their mental abilities and other traits. This shows that even drastically different environments are not capable of overcoming hereditary influences. Social Influence, Cognition & Interaction Social influence, cognition, and interaction are all related to how people think, behave, and are affected by others: ∙ **Social cognition** The neural processes that drive how people think and act in social situations. Social cognition develops in childhood and adolescence, and is an important part of neuroscience. ∙ **Prosocial behavior** Actions that are intended to help others, such as sharing, comforting, and protecting. ∙ **Aggressive behavior** Actions that are intended to harm or injure others. ∙ **Social influence** How the presence of others can affect behavior. Factors that can influence social influence include: ∙ **Culture**: The values, beliefs, practices, art, and language of a culture can influence behavior. For example, in individualistic cultures, people may make their own decisions, while in collectivistic cultures, decisions may be made through mutual agreement. ∙ **Environment** The physical world around people can influence behavior. For example, temperature can be negatively related to aggression and irritability. ∙ **Stress** Stress can make people more likely to misread others, send confusing signals, and behave in unhealthy ways. ∙ **Need for individuation** The desire to be distinguished from others can influence how much people conform to social norms. Aggression &Pro-social behaviour **Prosocial behaviors are actions that aim to benefit others, while aggressive behaviors are actions that intend to harm others:** ∙ **Prosocial behaviors** These include acts of sharing, helping, comforting, and protecting. Prosocial behaviors can be a social skill that may help reduce the effects of aggression. ∙ **Aggressive behaviors** These can be physical, verbal, or relational. Physical aggression includes hitting, kicking, beating, or stabbing someone, or damaging property. Verbal aggression includes name calling, mocking, and yelling. Relational aggression is intended to harm someone\'s relationships. Some factors that may affect the likelihood of prosocial behavior include: ∙ **Individual characteristics** High levels of self-esteem may increase the likelihood of prosocial behavior. ∙ **Situational factors** The number of people observing a scene may affect the likelihood of prosocial behavior. ∙ **Social relationships** Children who form friendships with aggressive peers may experience reductions in prosocial behavior. Some effects of aggression include: physical pain, stress, loss of confidence, and other psychological problems