Study Guide for the MidTerm PDF

Unpacking Sexism and Gender Corrine Grace C. Opada, MSDA GENDER ISSUES are issues, concerns, or problems arising from societal expectations and perceptions on the roles of women and men that impede one’s opportunities to participate in the development process and enjoy its benefits. Gend...

Unpacking Sexism and Gender Corrine Grace C. Opada, MSDA GENDER ISSUES are issues, concerns, or problems arising from societal expectations and perceptions on the roles of women and men that impede one’s opportunities to participate in the development process and enjoy its benefits. Gender issues include all aspects and concerns related to women’s and men’s lives and situations in the society to the way they interrelate, their differences in access due to and use of resources, their activities and how they react to changes, interventions and policies. (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2014) GENDER ISSUES are broader societal and structural challenges linked to gender inequality. Examples: Lack of equal pay for men and women Higher rates of domestic violence against women Limited access to education for girls in certain regions. Underrepresentation of women and LGBTQ+ individuals in politics or leadership UNDERSTANDING INTERSECTIONALITY: DISCRIMINATION BASED ON GENDER AND OTHER SOCIAL FACTORS Social equality refers to a situation in which all members of a society have the same rights, liberties, and status, which may include civil rights, freedom of expression, property rights, and equal access to certain social goods and services. Understanding inequality in all forms is necessary to understand that inequality is not uniform and can never be a single-issue struggle. Professor Kimberle Crenshaw created the term intersectionality in 1989 to describe how race, class, gender, and other social identities “intersect” and overlap. INTERSECTIONALITY shows that people’s social identities could overlap and create discrimination and oppression in multiple forms of discrimination. It could be based on: INTERSECTIONALITY shows that people’s social identities could overlap and create discrimination and oppression in multiple forms of discrimination. It could be based on: When it comes to gender issues, gender intersects with other social factors and becomes a source of gender issue and/ or discrimination. GENDER ROLES refer to the role or behaviors learned by a person as appropriate to their gender and are determined by the dominant cultural norms. a set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex or sexuality. Two major psychological theories that explains how children form their own gender roles: 1. Gender schema theory argues that children are active learners who essentially socialize themselves and actively organize others’ behavior, activities, and attributes into gender categories, which are known as schemas. 2. Social learning theory which argues that genders are learned through reinforcement, punishment and modeling. Children are rewarded and reinforced for behaving in concordance with gender roles and punished for breaking gender roles. GENDER ROLES usually centered on conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures (Thiyagu, 2015).  Types of Gender Roles Concept Description REPRODUCTIVE ROLES Childbearing and rearing, domestic tasks that guarantee the maintenance and reproduction of the current and future work force (cooking, cleaning, etc.) PRODUCTIVE ROLES Work done for remuneration, in cash or kind. (e.g., wage labor, farming, crafts, etc) COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT Work that supports collective consumption and maintenance of ROLES community resources (this is voluntary unpaid work, undertaken in 'free' time). COMMUNITY POLITICS ROLE Activities undertaken primarily by men at the community level. This is usually paid work, either directly or indirectly, through status or power. MULTIPLE ROLES Both men and women play multiple roles however, the difference can be observed based on the following: Men: typically focused on a single productive role Women: play their roles all together balancing the demands of each role within their limited time resources THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER Socialization is the process whereby individuals learn the culture of their society. Several agents of socialization exist, including the family, peers, schools, the mass media, and religion, and all these institutions help to socialize people into their gender roles and also help them develop their gender identity (Andersen & Hysock, 2011). Gender socialization occurs through four major agents of socialization: A. FAMILY the first agent of socialization. Socialization into gender roles begins in infancy, as almost from the moment of birth parents begin to socialize their children as boys or girls without even knowing it (Begley, 2009; Eliot, 2011). B. SCHOOL Teachers, peers, and curricular materials are the primary gender socialization agents in schools. Curricular materials such as textbooks have historically contained gender- stereotypical pictures and text (Eddens, 2021) C. MASS MEDIA Gender inequalities are pervasive in children’s movies (Smith 2008). Women are also often portrayed as unintelligent or frivolous individuals who are there more for their looks than for anything else. Television commercials reinforce this image. D. RELIGION Many traditional interpretations of the Bible yield the message that women are subservient to men (Tanenbaum, 2009). MANIFESTATIONS OF GENDER BIAS (MGB) Gender bias highlights the gender-based inequality that women and men experience. For example, women are underrepresented in societies all across the world. They experience various barriers in terms of access and control to resources, advancement, power, and others. These are the results of discriminatory behaviors or ideas based on gender-based belief that women do not have the same rights and dignity as men. MANIFESTATIONS OF GENDER BIAS (MGB) Bias can be conscious or unconscious, and may manifest in many ways, both subtle and obvious. Gender bias is the unequal treatment in employment opportunity such as in promotion, pay, benefits and privileges and expectations. Gender biases are rooted from people’s experiences and realities. MANIFESTATIONS OF GENDER BIAS (MGB) The following are the different manifestations of gender biases that cause gender issues and enable gender inequality in our society. Gender Stereotyping Subordination Marginalization Multiple Burdens Violence Against Women GENDER STEREOTYPE is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by, women and men. It refers to the practice of ascribing to an individual woman or man specific attributes, characteristics, or roles by reason only of her or his membership in the social group of women or men. Gender stereotyping is wrongful when it results in a violation or violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms (UNCHR, 2022). GENDER STEREOTYPE Examples: Not criminalizing marital rape, perceiving that women are the sexual property of men; and Failing to investigate, prosecute and sentence sexual violence against women, believing that victims of sexual violence agreed to sexual acts, as they were not dressing and behaving “modestly”. Many of our gender stereotypes are strong because we emphasize gender so much in culture (Bigler & Liben, 2007). In the domestic sphere, women have performed the majority of routine domestic work and played the major caretaker role. In the workplace, women have tended to be employed in people-oriented, service occupations rather than things-oriented, competitive occupations, which have traditionally been occupied by men (Lippa et.al, 2014). Gender Stereotype Four Basic Examples of Gender Stereotyping: Personality Traits: Women are supposed to be shy, passive, and submissive. Women are organized and clean. Men are expected to be tough, aggressive, dominant, and self-confident. Men are lazy and messy. Gender Stereotype Four Basic Examples of Gender Stereotyping: Domestic Behaviors: Women are supposed to cook and do housework. Women are “better” at raising children. Stay at home mothers are better that working mothers. On the other hand, men are better at household repair. Men cannot cook, sew, or care for their children. Men always tell their wives what to do. Gender Stereotype Four Basic Examples of Gender Stereotyping: Occupations: Women are supposed to make less money than men. Women are not politicians. Men are supposed to be in charge at work. And should make more money that women. Men are better politicians. Gender Stereotype Four Basic Examples of Gender Stereotyping: Physical Appearance: Women are expected to be short and slender, small and delicate while men are supposed to be tall with broad shoulders. Physical appearance gender stereotyping varies from one culture to another culture. Marginalization It is when the women’s participation in development is limited to traditional programs and projects, especially those, particular related to maternal and child care, day care centers and nutrition. It results in failure to recognize women's concerns in other areas, particularly within the economic sectors. Hence, women are unable to develop their potential to the fullest. This occurs when a person or groups of people are less able to do things or access basic services or opportunities. It’s also sometimes referred to as social exclusion (LibertiesEU, 2021). Marginalization Three Main Types of Marginalization: SOCIAL MARGINALIZATION - When someone can’t participate in everyday leisure activities. ECONOMIC MARGINALIZATION - Refers to disparities in amassing wealth or getting a job. POLITICAL MARGINALIZATION - Politically marginalized communities struggle to participate in parts of the civic process, like voting or gaining access to their political representatives. Subordination The subordinate status of women is also seen at home when women must yield to their husbands as traditionally perceived to be the head of the household. As a result, women’s access and control to resources are lesser that those with a dominant position. It means having less power or authority that somebody else in a group or an organization (Hornby, 2023). Multiple Burden In most societies, women are expected to play three despite their limited time and energy. Multiple Burden Productive work - paid work in the workforce Reproductive work - unpaid care work at home Community work - volunteer work in the community Violence Against Women Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental health or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life. SEXISM Sexism is prejudice or discrimination against a person or group based on their sex or gender. It primarily affects women and girls, and it is the root cause of gender inequity worldwide. Sexist acts include any that frame one sex or gender as inferior manifested through behavior, speech, writing, images, gestures, laws and policies, practices and traditions (Medical News Today, 2021). TYPES OF SEXISM A. HOSTILE SEXISM This involves any overtly hostile attitudes about women, such as the belief that women are manipulative, sinful, weak, or resentful, or that they owe men sex. Hostile sexism is dangerous and fuels gender-based violence (Medical News Today, 2021). According to a 2019 study, this form of sexism can sometimes lead to sexual harassment and violence toward women (Mastari et al., 2019). TYPES OF SEXISM B. BENEVOLENT SEXISM This is based on the idea that women are naturally kind, pure, and innocent. Benevolent sexism can negatively impact how women view themselves, making them less likely to challenge patriarchal norms or sexist inequalities (Barreto & Ellemers, 2015). TYPES OF SEXISM C. AMBIVALENT SEXISM Ambivalent sexism is a combination of benevolent and hostile sexism, which often work together as part of a system. It fuses the seemingly contradictory beliefs that women are both fragile and pure as well as manipulative and conniving. TYPES OF SEXISM D. INSTITUTIONAL SEXISM When a society perpetuates different opportunities or advantages for one sex over the other. One of the clearest indicators is the lack of gender diversity among political leaders and business executives (Strong, 2022). Sexism is often embedded into laws, company policies, hiring practices, media representation, and other aspects of society. TYPES OF SEXISM E. INTERPERSONAL SEXISM This manifests during interactions with others. It can occur in the workplace, within relationships, among family members, and in interactions with strangers like: making inappropriate comments about someone’s appearance, talking down to someone based on assumptions about their gender, engaging in unwanted sexual attention or touching and justifying sexist behavior by saying “boys will be boys” (Strong,2022). TYPES OF SEXISM F. INTERNALIZED SEXISM Internalized sexism refers to sexist beliefs that a person has about themselves. Usually, a person adopts these beliefs involuntarily as a result of exposure to sexist behavior or the opinions of others. Biased beliefs about others also shape discrimination against both women and minorities (Bohren et al., 2017). Samples include “blonde jokes” someone basing their self-worth on how desirable they are in the eyes of men. Globally, women have fewer opportunities for economic participation than men, less access to basic and higher education, greater health and safety risks, and less political representation (Peace Corps). Girls and women suffer most of the negative impact of rigid gender norms and roles, they are more likely to experience restrictions of their freedom and mobility, and they experience epidemic levels of violence and harassment across the globe and have fewer opportunities to choose how to live their lives (Plan International). Denying people the freedom to choose their path in life because of their gender prevents them from fulfilling their full potential. There is lots we can do to help build a more gender-equal world. Understanding the deep roots of gender inequality and challenging discrimination when we see it are the first steps. Women, men and LGBTQ+ have their own distinct capability as a person. Gender and Power Corrine Grace C. Opada, MSDA POWER It is the ability to get what you need, keep what you have, and influence others in order to meet your interests. Power as a concept, is neutral. It becomes positive or negative depending on how it is wielded by the actors who are differently positioned in a given social structure. POWER’S CHARACTERISTICS POWER IS EVERYWHERE For as long as there are groups of people interacting with one another, power is at work. POWER’S CHARACTERISTICS POWER IS DYNAMIC It is never dormant or immovable but shifts according to context, circumstance and interest. POWER’S CHARACTERISTICS POWER IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL Power has multiple forms and expressions that can range from domination and resistance to cooperation and transformation (sources of power such as commitment, humor, numbers, political awareness, persistence, imagination, solidarity and song). POWER’S CHARACTERISTICS POWER IS RELATIONAL Power is established and exercised through human interaction at many different levels ranging from the interpersonal to the global. POWER’S CHARACTERISTICS POWER IS UNEVENLY CONCENTRATED AND WIELDED Access to resources and decision-making has been monopolized by few. This concentration of power has contributed to widespread poverty, marginalization and the violation of human rights. POWER’S CHARACTERISTICS POWER RESIDES IN EVERYONE POWER’S CHARACTERISTICS POWER IS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT Just like the concept of gender and gender roles, power is defined relatively across time and space. DIFFERENT MODES OF POWER Personal Power: refers to an individual’s ability to know, pursue, and in some cases, achieve their interest. This dimension of power is based on self-images, other-images, skills, resources, and motivations. Interpersonal Power: refers to one’s ability to influence other agents and structures around him/her, in order to achieve their interests. This dimension of power can be cooperative (POWER WITH) or controlling (POWER OVER). SUMMARY Gender Issues are issues, concerns, or problems arising from societal expectations and perceptions on the roles of women and men that impede one’s opportunities to participate in the development process and enjoy its benefits. Gender Issues are broader societal and structural challenges linked to gender inequality. Social equality refers to a situation in which all members of a society have the same rights, liberties, and status, which may include civil rights, freedom of expression, property rights, and equal access to certain social goods and services. Inequality is not uniform and can never be a single-issue struggle. Intersectionality shows that people’s social identities could overlap and create discrimination and oppression in multiple forms of discrimination. SUMMARY Gender roles refer to the role or behaviors learned by a person as appropriate to their gender and are determined by the dominant cultural norms. Two major psychological theories that explains how children form their own gender roles - Gender Schema theory: argues that children are active learners who essentially socialize themselves and actively organize others’ behavior, activities, and attributes into gender categories, which are known as schemas. - Social Learning Theory: which argues that genders are learned through reinforcement, punishment and modeling. SUMMARY Types of Gender Roles: 1. Reproductive Roles – Childbearing and rearing, and domestic tasks 2. Productive Roles – Paid work/ Work done for remuneration, in cash or kind. 3. Community Management Roles - voluntary works; Work that supports collective consumption and maintenance of community resources. 4. Community Politics Role - Activities undertaken primarily by men at the community level. This is usually paid work, either directly or indirectly, through status or power. 5. Multiple Roles - Portraying different/various roles. Combination of all roles stated above. SUMMARY Socialization is the process whereby individuals learn the culture of their society. Types of Agents of Socialization 1. Family – basic unit of the society; first agent of socialization; Socialization into gender roles begins in infancy, as almost from the moment of birth parents begin to socialize their children as boys or girls without even knowing it. 2. School - Teachers, peers, and curricular materials are the primary gender socialization agents in schools. 3. Mass Media - Women are also often portrayed as unintelligent or frivolous individuals who are there more for their looks than for anything else. Television commercials reinforce this image. 4. Religion - Many traditional interpretations of the Bible yield the message that women are subservient to men SUMMARY Gender bias highlights the gender-based inequality that women and men experience. Bias can be conscious or unconscious, and may manifest in many ways, both subtle and obvious. Different manifestations of gender biased that cause gender issues and enable gender inequality: 1. Gender Stereotyping - is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by, women and men. Examples of Gender Stereotyping: a. Personality Traits b. Domestic Behaviors c. Occupations d. Physical Appearance SUMMARY Different manifestations of gender biased that cause gender issues and enable gender inequality: 2. Marginalization - It is when the women’s participation in development is limited to traditional programs and projects.. It’s also sometimes referred to as social exclusion. THREE TYPES OF MARGINALIZATION 1. SOCIAL MARGINALIZATION - When someone can’t participate in everyday leisure activities. 2. ECONOMIC MARGINALIZATION - Refers to disparities in amassing wealth or getting a job. 3. POLITICAL MARGINALIZATION- Politically marginalized communities struggle to participate in parts of the civic process, like voting or gaining access to their political representatives. SUMMARY Different manifestations of gender biased that cause gender issues and enable gender inequality: 3. SUBORDINATION - The subordinate status of women is also seen at home when women must yield to their husbands as traditionally perceived to be the head of the household. As a result, women’s access and control to resources are lesser that those with a dominant position. 4. MULTIPLE BURDEN - women are expected to play three roles (reproductive, productive, and community roles) despite their limited time and energy. 5. VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN - Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental health or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life. SUMMARY Sexism is prejudice or discrimination against a person or group based on their sex or gender. It primarily affects women and girls, and it is the root cause of gender inequity worldwide. TYPES OF SEXISM: 1. Hostile Sexism: This involves any overtly hostile attitudes about women, such as the belief that women are manipulative, sinful, weak, or resentful, or that they owe men sex. 2. Benevolent Sexism: This is based on the idea that women are naturally kind, pure, and innocent. Benevolent sexism can negatively impact how women view themselves, making them less likely to challenge patriarchal norms or sexist inequalities. 3. Ambivalent Sexism: It is a combination of benevolent and hostile sexism, which often work together as part of a system. SUMMARY TYPES OF SEXISM: 4. Institutional Sexism - When a society perpetuates different opportunities or advantages for one sex over the other. 5. Interpersonal Sexism - This manifests during interactions with others. It can occur in the workplace, within relationships, among family members, and in interactions with strangers like making inappropriate comments about someone’s appearance, talking down to someone based on assumptions about their gender. 6. Internalized Sexism - Internalized sexism refers to sexist beliefs that a person has about themselves. Usually, a person adopts these beliefs involuntarily as a result of exposure to sexist behavior or the opinions of others. SUMMARY Women, men and LGBTQ+ have their own distinct capability as a person. Power is the ability to get what you need, keep what you have, and influence others in order to meet your interests. Characteristics of Power: a. Power is everywhere – b. Power is dynamic - shifts according to context, circumstance and interest. c. Power is multidimensional - Power has multiple forms and expressions that can range from domination and resistance to cooperation and transformation. d. Power is Relational - Power is established and exercised through human interaction. e. Power is Unevenly Concentrated And Wielded - This concentration of power has contributed to widespread poverty, marginalization and the violation of human rights. f. Power resides in everyone g. Power is a social construct SUMMARY Modes of Power: A. Personal Power - refers to an individual’s ability to know, pursue, and in some cases, achieve their interest. B. Interpersonal Power - refers to one’s ability to influence other agents and structures around him/her, to achieve their interests. B.1 Power With - cooperative B.1 Power Over - controlling Equal does not mean Identical Corrine Grace C. Opada, MSDA GENDER EQUALITY Gender equality (equality between women and men) entails the concept that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices. Gender equality means that the different behavior, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favored equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. HOW ARE WE GOING TO ACHIEVE GENDER EQUALITY? Gender equality is the end goal and Gender equity is how we get there. GENDER EQUITY Gender equity means fairness of treatment for women and men, according to their respective needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities (ILO, Geneva, 2000). The path of equality is built on equity. Gender Equality: Women and men are given equal rights and access to education, scholarship, and training Gender Equity: Mothers or pregnant women are provided with options to have online sessions or flexible schedule. Gender Equality: Women and men provided with comfort rooms in public offices. Gender Equity: Handrails for Person’s with Disability Provision of sanitary pads. Installation of toilet urinal bowl for men. Provision of all gender comfort rooms. WHAT ARE YOUR THOUGHTS? The right to be treated on an equal basis with men when it comes to domestic and family matters is essential for women’s economic and social freedom. Since women and men do not have equal access to and control over resources such as money, transport and time, and because their decision-making power within the family is unequal, with men enjoying privileges that women are denied, women’s access to services is restricted (Circle of Rights). What elements of the image caught your interest and how can you relate this in your own experience? Knowing the basic concepts of social exclusion and oppression, gender stereotyped roles, sexism in language and realizing our beliefs of gender equality and equity is primarily important to have a holistic understanding of the social and cultural patterns. SOCIAL EXCLUSION Social exclusion describes a state in which individuals are unable to participate fully in economic, social, political and cultural life, as well as the process leading to and sustaining such a state. Participation may be hindered when people lack access to material resources, including income, employment, land and housing, or to such services as education and health care which are essential foundations of well-being. It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the equity and cohesion of society as a whole. (Levitas, 2007). OPPRESSION Oppression is the inequitable use of authority, law, or physical force to prevent others from being free or equal. Oppression is a type of injustice. Cultural oppression of women can take many forms, including shaming and ridiculing women to reinforce their supposed inferior "nature," or physical abuse, as well as the more commonly acknowledged means of oppression including fewer political, social and economic rights (Napikoski, 2020). OPPRESSION In some psychological views, the oppression of women is an outcome of the more aggressive and competitive nature of males due to testosterone levels. Others attribute it to a self-reinforcing cycle where men compete for power and control (Napikoski, 2020). Also, oppression towards women are actions from individual or group that place women in the position of marginalization, exploitation, powerlessness, cultural imperialism and violence because of their stereotype as women (Rahma et. Al, 2017) Oppression in Different Views According to Johnson (2005) oppression is a system of social inequality one group is positioned to dominate and benefit the exploitation and subordination of another. Oppression happens when there is a position prospers one group to exploit and subordinate other people or group. The position can be created because of the amount of power that owned by the group Oppression in Different Views Chernin (1994) says that women mostly oppressed by the concept of “the tyranny of slenderness” where women indirectly oppressed to be slim as a standard of beauty concept in the society. The tyranny of slenderness in the society forces women to oppress themselves to be slim. Oppression in Different Views According to Langan (2015) women are denied from their rights and they are oppressed through stereotypes which are often reinforced by social workers. Langan states, the oppression toward women usually happen because of their stereotype in the society, such as nurturing, soft, and weak, these stereotypes which lead women to be oppressed. The society perspective of what women supposed to be, makes them cannot explore their capability except in domestic area.  The opposite of oppression would be liberation (to remove oppression) or equality (absence of oppression). GENDER STEREOTYPED ROLES Traditional gender roles can be very different from culture to culture, and in some cultures, women face dangerous discrimination and violence. Stereotypes of women are more common, but society often expects men to conform to stereotypical gender roles as well (Flo Health, 2022). Examples: Source: https://express.adobe.com/page/z862E/ Examples: Source: https://express.adobe.com/page/z862E/ Examples: Source: https://express.adobe.com/page/z862E/ PATRIARCHY Patriarchy literally means "the rule of the father" and comes from the Greek patriarkhēs, which mean "father of a race" or "chief of a race”. Patriarch, which is a compound of patria that means "lineage or descent" and from the word patēr, that means "father“. Patriarchy is a set of practices, beliefs, norms, and standards that put primacy/ supremacy of men over women. It categorizes people hierarchically through sex where men are more superior over women and children. Patriarchy is the institutional rule of men. PATRIARCHY The word Patriarchy was initially used to describe the power of the father as head of household. The term “patriarchy” has been used within post-1960s feminism to refer to the systematic organization of male supremacy and female subordination (Kamarae, 1992). The term has been defined as a system of male authority which oppresses women through its social, political and economic. In general, a system is any collection of interrelated parts or elements that we can think of as a whole. Societies include a variety of interrelated aspects that we can think of as a whole. This includes cultural ideas about men and women, the web of relationships that structure social life, and the unequal distribution of power, rewards and resources that underlies privilege and oppression. PATRIARCHY, The System The crucial thing to understand about patriarchy or any other social system is that it’s something people participate in. It’s an arrangement of shared understandings and relationships that connect people to one another and something larger than them. PATRIARCHY, The System What do men control in the Patriarchal System? 1. Women’s productive (labor power) - Men control women’s productivity both within the household and outside, in paid work (patriarchal mode of production). Within the household women (producing class) provide all kinds of services to their husbands, children and other members of the family throughout their lives. What do men control in the Patriarchal System? 2. Women’s Reproduction- Men also control women’s reproductive power. In most cases, women cannot decide as to how many children they want, or a decision to terminate the pregnancy. What do men control in the Patriarchal System? 3. Women’s Sexuality- Women are obliged to provide sexual services to their husbands according to their needs and desires. Sometimes, women’s sexuality is controlled by their dress, behavior and mobility which are carefully monitored by the family and through social, cultural and religious codes of conduct. What do men control in the Patriarchal System? 4. Women’s Mobility- The imposition of restriction on leaving the house, the limit on the interaction between the sexes are some of the ways by which the patriarchal society controls women’s mobility and freedom of movement. Such restrictions are unique to women, while men are not subject to such restrictions. What do men control in the Patriarchal System? 5. Property and other Economic Resources - Most property and other productive resources are controlled by men and are passed on from father to son. Even in societies where women have legal rights to inherit property, customary practices, social sanctions and emotional pressures that prevent them from acquiring control over them. Patriarchy is a social structure, not a conspiracy/scheme among men. It is not always intentional; men need not intend to oppress women. Men too are subject to the enormous pressures of a social system. Men as well as women are damaged by patriarchy. In a patriarchal culture, a man cannot be oppressed because men as a group are not oppressed. MATRIARCHY Matriarchy is a word that derived from the Latin word mater, meaning “mother,” and archein, or "to rule". A matriarchy is a social system is which women have more power in the community than men. A kind of social system in which females hold primary power, predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property at the specific exclusion of men, at least to a large degree. As a system, the mother is the head of the household. MATRIARCHY In a matriarchal society, the governance of the society is also in the hands of women. The matriarch makes all major household decisions, including financial ones, and women do work often doled out to men in other cultures. The Mosuo women are China's last surviving matriarchy. Lineage is traced through the women of the family. This society is also matrilineal, meaning property is handed down the same female line. Mosuo women also don't marry. Should they choose to have a partner, the two don't live together and the mother plays the primary role in raising the children. SEXISM IN LANGUAGE Verbal communication is one of the most powerful means through which sexism and gender discrimination are perpetrated and reproduced (Menegatti, 2017). SEXISM IN LANGUAGE Sexism is defined as, attitudes of behavior based on traditional stereotypes of “sexual roles” or discrimination or “devaluation based on a person’s sex” and can refer to three subtly different beliefs or attitudes: (1) that one sex is superior to the other; (2) that men and women are very different and that this should be strongly reflected in society, language, the right to have sex, and the law; and (3) can also refer to simply hatred of women or hatred of men. SEXISM IN LANGUAGE Thoughts, perceptions and attitudes are powerfully influenced by language and, thus, play a very crucial role in promoting gender awareness and consciousness. Moreover, language creates categories for thought, as words can create either make or break a relationship in specific and the society in general. Boundaries exist when the words and phrases demean, ignore or stereotype members of either sex or that needlessly call attention to gender. Sexist language excludes, trivializes or diminishes either gender (Talosa & Temporal, 2018). SEXISM IN LANGUAGE Sexism in language is the use of language which devalues members of one sex, almost invariably women, and thus fosters gender inequality. It discriminates against women by rendering them invisible or trivializing them at the same time that it perpetuates notions of male supremacy. WHY CONCERN ABOUT MERE WORDS? Language articulates consciousness. It is not only orders our thought but from infancy, we learn to use language to give utterance to our basic needs and feelings. Language reflects culture. It encodes and transmits cultural meanings and values in our society. Language affects socialization. Social inequity reflected in language can thus powerfully affect a child's later behavior and beliefs. Children learning a language absorb the cultural assumptions and biases underlying language use and see these as an index to their society's values and attitudes HOW CAN BIAS IN LANGUAGE BE REDUCED? Avoid unnecessary male pronouns by using plural pronouns "they", "them", etc. Replace male pronouns with combinations such as "she or he", "him or her", "her or his Use job names that apply equally to men and women Gender neutral language, also referred to as gender-inclusive language, can be defined as “speaking and writing in a way that does not discriminate against a particular sex, social gender or identity, and does not perpetuate gender stereotypes” (STEM Women, 2022). Properly using an individual's correct pronoun is an easy way to show respect. GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE COMMON USAGE ALTERNATIVE Layman, lay men Layperson, nonspecialist, non-professional Manhood Adulthood, maturity Manning Staffing, working One man show Solo exhibition, one person show Man, Mankind, Men Human beings, people, human, humanity, human race, society, men and women Working men, workmen, Workers, wage earners, human resource, staff, manpower personnel, labor force GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE COMMON USAGE ALTERNATIVE Man on the street Average person, ordinary person Forefather ancestor Early man Early people, early men and women, early human beings Founding fathers founders GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE The Singular Masculine Pronouns “He”, “His”, “Him Examples: When a reporter covers a controversial story, he has a responsibility to present both sides of the issue. Each student should bring his notebook to class everyday. Everyone packed his own lunch. If a customer has a complaint, send him to the service desk. The handicapped child may be able to feed himself. GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Suggested Alternatives Examples: When a reporter covers a controversial story, he has a responsibility to present both sides of the issue. When reporters cover controversies stories, they have a responsibility to present both sides of the issue. GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Suggested Alternatives Examples: Each student should bring his notebook to class everyday. All students should bring their notebooks to class everyday. GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Suggested Alternatives Examples: Everyone packed his own lunch. Everyone packed a lunch. GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Suggested Alternatives Examples: If a customer has a complaint, send him to the service desk. Customers with complaints should be sent to the service desk. GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Suggested Alternatives Examples: The handicapped child may be able to feed himself. Handicapped children may be able to feed themselves. GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Terms ending in man to refer to functions that may be performed by individuals of either sex. CURRENT USAGE ALTERNATIVE Anchorman Anchor, anchorperson Businessman Business executive, manager, business owner, retailer Cameraman Camera operator, cinematographer, photographer, videographer Chairman Chairperson, Chair Congressman Representative, member of the congress, congress member, legislator GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Terms ending in man to refer to functions that may be performed by individuals of either sex. CURRENT USAGE ALTERNATIVE Craftsmen Artisans, craft artists, craftpersons Draftsmen Drafters Firemen Fire fighters Fishermen Fishers, Fisherfolks Foremen Supervisors Lineman Line installers, Line repairer Lumberman Lumbercutters GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Terms ending in man to refer to functions that may be performed by individuals of either sex. CURRENT USAGE ALTERNATIVE Policemen Police officers, law enforcement officers Repairmen Repairers Salesman Salesperson, sales representative, sales agent Spokesman Spokesperson, representative Sportsmen Sports enthusiast Watchmen Guards Weathermen Weather reporter, weathercasters, metereologist GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Language which disparages and marginalizes women (or persons of another gender) CURRENT USAGE ALTERNATIVE Girl Adult female Salesgirls Saleswomen Ladies Women Weaker Sex Women The better half Wife Spinster, Old maid Unmarried Women Starlets Aspiring actors GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Language which disparages and marginalizes women (or persons of another gender) CURRENT USAGE ALTERNATIVE Hookers, whores Prostitutes Chicks Woman, girl (depending on the age) House wives, house Homemakers husbands Servants, maids Domestic helpers, household helpers Chambermaids Hotel workers GENDER FAIR LANGUAGE Language that fosters unequal gender relations / Lack of parallelism CURRENT USAGE ALTERNATIVE Man and wife Husband and wife Men and girls Men and women; boys and girls Men and ladies Men and women; ladies and gentlemen President Bush and Mrs. President Bush and President Arroyo Arroyo Mr. and Mrs. Juan Dela Cruz Mr. Juan and Mrs. Cynthia Dela Cruz EQUALITY Equality means each individual or group of people is given the same resources or opportunities. Equity recognizes that each person has different circumstances and allocates the exact resources and opportunities needed to reach an equal outcome (Dressel). The word equity is defined as “the quality of being fair or impartial; fairness; impartiality” or “something that is fair and just. It is a solution for addressing imbalanced social systems. Justice can take equity one step further by fixing the systems in a way that leads to long-term, sustainable, equitable access for generations t come (GWU, 2020). While the tree appears to be a naturally occurring system, it is critical to remember that social systems aren’t naturally inequitable- they’ve been intentionally designed to reward specific demographics for so long that the systems outcomes may appear unintentional but are actually rooted discriminatory practices and beliefs. HOMEWORK: Culture-Based Gender Issues Corrine Grace C. Opada, MSDA SOCIAL NORMS SOCIAL NORMS are the unwritten rules of behavior that govern how a society and individuals should function and behave. Individuals engender and conform to norms due to the expectation of sanctions by their friends, family, neighbors and community members if they break a social norm (Marcus, 2014). Three Related Dimensions of Gender 1. Gender Norms are produced through social institutions (families, schools, workplaces), social interactions (this includes between romantic partners, colleagues in the workplace or family members) and wider cultural products (textbooks, literature, films etc). Gender norms represent perspectives on what gender relations “should be like” and how individuals of particular genders “should behave” through their gender role. Gender norms are social norms with gender specific components. This determines how males and females should think, speak, dress, and interact within the context of society. Gender Norms Three Related Dimensions of Gender 2. Gender Identities refers to how individuals or group perceive and present themselves in relation to gender norms. Gender Identity Three Related Dimensions of Gender 3. Gender Relations refers to how we interact with people and institutions around us, based on our sex and our gender identity. This encompasses how gender shapes social interactions in families, schools, workplaces including public settings. Gender Relations Gender norms are the spoken and unspoken rules of societies about the acceptable behaviors of girls and boys, women and men — how they should act, look and even think or feel. These norms are perpetuated and challenged in families, communities, schools, workplaces, institutions and the media (Schoenherr, 2019). These expectations start early and powerfully shape individuals‘ attitudes, opportunities, experiences, and behaviors, with important health consequences throughout the life course. All violations of women‘s and girls‘ rights may be described as harmful traditional practices are caused by gender inequality including unequal power relations between women and men, rigid gender roles, norms and hierarchies, and ascribing women lower status in society.  Harmful traditional practices for women and girls Harmful traditional practices are a product of social norms which aim to uphold cultural ideas about gender roles and social relations. These practices are often carried out without the consent of the women involved and as a result, women themselves often play a role in perpetuating such violence. Some of the specific practices are dealt with hereinafter. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) Female genital mutilation (FGM) involves the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia for nonmedical purposes. The practice is mostly carried out by traditional practitioners. FGM is practiced on babies just a few days old to girls‘ right before marriage or young women pregnant with their first child (Gilbert, 1993). Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) FGM is a social convention (social norm), the social pressure to conform to what others do and have been doing, as well as the need to be accepted socially and the fear of being rejected by the community, are strong motivations to perpetuate the practice. It aims to ensure premarital virginity and marital fidelity (WHO, 2022). Major Types of Female Genital Mutilation (World Health Organization) Type 1. This is the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and/or the prepuce/ clitoral hood. Type 2. this is the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora with or without removal of the labia majora. Type 3. Also known as infibulations or pharaonic circumcision, this is the narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and repositioning the labia minora, or labia majora, sometimes through stitching, with or without removal of the clitoral prepuce/clitoral hood and glans. Type 4. This includes all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non- medical purposes, e.g. pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterizing the genital area. Other terms related to FGM include: Incision refers to making cuts in the clitoris or cutting free the clitoral prepuce. Deinfibulation refers to the practice of cutting open a woman who has been infibulated to allow intercourse or to facilitate childbirth. Reinfibulation is the practice of sewing the external labia back together after deinfibulation. Who performs FGM? FGM is usually carried out by a traditional practitioner such as traditional circumciser, barber, or traditional birth attendant in the communities. Anesthetic and antiseptics are generally not used (UNFPA, 2022). FGM is associated with cultural ideals of femininity and modesty, which include the notion that girls are clean and beautiful after removal of body parts that are considered unclean, unfeminine or male (WHO, 2022).  While the exact numbers of girls and women worldwide who have undergone FGM remains unknown, at least 200 million girls and women have been cut in 31 countries (UNICEF, 2022). In some communities, FGM is considered a girl‘s initiation into womanhood and marriage and to ensure premarital virginity and marital fidelity.  Due to the COVID-19 pandemic causing disruptions in prevention programs, U.N. health officials fear an additional 2 million cases of FGM will surface by 2030. And with school closures, girls may become more isolated and vulnerable to FGM in countries where it‘s still practiced. Communities that perform Female Genital Mutilation are found in many parts of Africa, the Middle East and some parts of Asia. FGM is a violation of girls‘ and women‘s human rights (UNICEF, 2022). Breast Ironing Breast Ironing also known as “Breast Flattening” is the process whereby young pubescent girls breasts are ironed, massaged and/or pounded down through the use of hard or heated objects in order for the breasts to disappear or delay the development of the breasts entirely. It is believed that by carrying out this act, young girls will be protected from harassment, rape, abduction and early forced marriage and therefore be kept in education (Africa Health Organisation, 2022). The objects used include plantains, wooden pestles, spatulas, coconut shells, and grinding stones heated over coals. Breast ironing is often performed by mothers or female relatives of victims misguidedly wishing to protect their young relatives from rape, unwanted sexual advances, early sex, and pregnancies (UNWOMEN, 2011). Perpetrators of this practice believed that beating breasts with hot grinding stones will melt the breast fat, causing impairment and cessation of growth of the breast (Africa Health Organization, 2020). Breast ironing affects nearly four million girl and women around the world and is considered an under-reported crime relating to gender- based violence. Breast ironing does not stop the breasts from growing, but development can be slowed down. Damage caused by the “ironing” can leave women with malformed breasts, difficulty breastfeeding or producing milk, severe chest pains, infections and abscesses. In some cases, it may be related to the onset of breast cancer (Hall, 2016). Leblouh Gavage is a French term that literally means “force feeding” and in Mauritania, gavage is known as Leblouh. As the social norms for marriage favor, young girls that have a large amount of body fat to increase their weight, and thus increase their chances for marriage at an early age (Ouldzeidoune, 2013). “Heavier girls and women” are believed to be beautiful and wealthy, while their “slimmer counterparts” are not only considered inferior but also a source of shame to their families (Rachidi, 2019). Leblouh is currently practiced and supported by many families who seek to gain stature and prestige in their communities. The practice is also done to make the girls attractive to eligible men (World Atlas, 2022). A "fat wife" was considered a sign of wealth as a man was seen to have enough wealth to generously feed his wife. A man with a large wife and daughters, therefore, held an honorable status in society. Today in Mauritania, a large body among women is not only considered desirable but is also a premarital requirement. Dry Sex. Dry sex is prevalent in remote parts of Southern Africa. In this practice, the vagina of the women is kept dry to achieve the “tightness” by using detergents, herbs and antiseptics, or by inserting leaves. This is to generate an increased sensation for the man during intercourse (Andel, 2007). This makes the process of sex very painful for the woman and increases the risk of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI‘s) for both partners. This behavior is normally undertaken to conform to male-dominated cultural concepts that vaginal lubrication fluid (“wet sex”) putatively indicates female infidelity, possible infection, licentiousness, and coldness and makes coitus less pleasurable because of reduced friction (Levin, 2005). Trokosi This is a traditional system where virgin girls, some as young as six years old, are sent into Troxovi shrines (shrines for gods) as slaves to make amends for wrongs committed by a member of the virgin girl‘s family (Volder, 2018). These young virgin girls are given to fetish shrines as sexual slaves for religious atonement. Those who practice trokosi believe family members will suffer misfortunes, such as disease and death, if they don‘t sacrifice their virgin daughters to the shrine. Ex-slaves of the gods are cursed throughout the rest of their lives, which makes them outcasts to their community A Trokosi’s Life For more offensive crimes, such as homicide, some families must send generation after generation of virgin girls to the shrine. Once the trokosi enters the shrine, they are faced with hard labor and the priest forces the trokosis to work long hours, such as fifteen hour work days, performing various duties that include cleaning, cooking, carrying water, and farming. A priest may keep a trokosi slave for her entire life, depending on the severity of the crime her relative committed. The trokosis are not compensated for any of their work and whatever earnings they make goes to the priest. The trokosis are not provided with any clothing, food, or other necessities by the shrine; all essential requirements are to be provided by the trokosi‘s parents. However, in most cases the parents are too afraid to visit their daughters because of the evil spirits they believe surround the shrine, as well as their daughters. Trokosi slaves experience sexual humiliation during their time in the shrine in addition to hard labor. After the first menstrual cycles of the trokosis, the priest will continually rape the girls at any time of his choosing. If a slave attempts to escape and is caught, she is severely beaten by the priest. If a slave runs away to her parents, they reject her out of fear of becoming cursed by evil spirits and immediately bring her back to the shrine. The Trokosi practice is similar to Devadasi which involves the marriage of young girls (prior to their puberty) to idols of Gods, and later, these girls are used by priests as they wish till the girl becomes old. After this, the girl is discarded, and as they cannot marry anyone (rather, no one wishes to marry them), they are forced to lead a poor and pitiful life till their death. Wife Inheritance In cultures with a strong tradition of patriarchalism, the loss of a husband can represent a real threat to a woman. In many cultures like this, women are traditionally excluded from holding power or wealth themselves, so a loss of a husband is a loss of security that can be fatal. Wife Inheritance Is a tradition where a woman is inherited to her brother-in-law or a cousin after the death of her husband irrespective of her consent. In this custom, a man inherits the property and wife of his deceased brother or relative. The custom is practiced in order to ensure that a widow and her children are taken care of after the death of her husband. When a man died, his male relative inherited his property. The woman has no say in which she is married off to following her husband's death. Widow inheritance in these cultures serves as a way to prevent widows from becoming destitute, while still maintaining a strict sense of patriarchal stratification. Widow inheritance is necessary because the widow could not inherit the property of her deceased husband. Widow inheritance is also done in order to continue the deceased‘s lineage and in order to keep the widow in the family (Kambole, 2015). Sati (Suttee) or Sahagaman Is the practice by which a recently widowed woman either voluntarily or by use of force or coercion commits suicide as a result of her husband's death. The best known form of sati is when a woman burns to death on her husband's funeral pyre. Other forms of sati exist, including being buried alive with the husband's corpse and drowning. Roop Kanwar—the last known case of sati in India. On September 4, 1987 Roop Kanwar, an eighteen-year old teen had taken the decision to jump into the funeral pyre of her husband in an act of self- immolation that came to establish a legacy that would live on for years to come. The mass audience, who were spectators to this act, described it as a voluntary action. Her decision to perform sati was upheld with high honor by her relatives and the locals alike. Roop Kanwar has been depicted as the ideal of womanhood (Mishra, 2020). Female Infanticide/Foeticide. Is the intentional killing of baby girls due to the preference for male babies and from low value associated with birth of females and this can also be described as gender-selective killing or gendercide. The reasons behind it are almost always cultural, rather than directly religious. Girl babies are often killed for financial reasons. Throughout history infanticide has been regarded as a productive and efficient way to control starvation and poor standards of living caused by over population (BBC, 2014). In China and India alone, an estimated 2 million baby girls go "missing" each year. They are selectively aborted, killed as newborns, or abandoned and left to die. Neighboring countries with similar cultural traditions, such as South Korea and Nepal, have also faced this problem. This is influenced by the teachings of Confucius wherein a man is superior to women and that sons have a duty to take care of their parents when the parents grow too old to work. Girls, in contrast, were seen as a burden to raise (Szczepanski, 2019). Female foeticide is a result of a gender bias social construction that discriminates against women and believes them to be less valuable than men. Honour Killing In patriarchal societies, the activities of girls and women are closely monitored. Honour Killing or shame killing is the homicide of a member of a family by other members, due to the perpetrators' belief that the victim has brought shame or dishonor upon the family, or has violated the principles of a community or a religion. A woman can be targeted by her family for a variety of reasons including refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, being a victim of sexual assault, seeking divorce or committing adultery (Radhiko, 2021). Methods of killing include stoning, stabbing, beating, burning, beheading, hanging, throat slashing, lethal acid attacks, shooting and strangulation. The murders are sometimes performed in public to warn the other women within the community of possible consequences of engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior (Thiyagu, 2015). Sworn Virgins In Albania, a “sworn virgin” is a biological female who has chosen to take on the social identity of a man for life. By taking an irrevocable oath to live as sworn virgin (burnesha) in front of a village or tribal elders, a woman can be elevated to the status of a man, thereby becoming entitled to all the rights and privileges of the male population (RL, 2019). Anthropologically this is a strictly patriarchal, patrilocal, patrilineal society where the social pressure of the fis (tribe) asserts a major influence. Tradition determines the need for household heads. The importance of "honor" is also a determinant of this need for men. Young (2001) describes different categories of sworn virgins: 1. Women who were raised as boys, to become the head of the household and allow them to inherit the family wealth, in cases when there were no other males in the family, in line with the patrilineal system. 2. Offered women an escape from arranged marriages. The decision to become a sworn virgin sometimes seemed like a free choice, while in other cases it was an obligation or a social necessity. Sexuality of sworn virgins was not clear. Early Marriage and Dowry Is a practice of giving away girls for marriage at the age of 11, 12 or 13, after which they must start producing children. The principal reasons for this practice are the girls' virginity and the bride-price. Girls are fattened up, groomed, adorned with jewels and kept in seclusion to make them attractive so that they can be married off to the highest bidder (CEDAW, 1979). Child marriage violates children‘s rights and places them at high risk of violence, exploitation, and abuse. Child marriage is the result of the interplay of economic and social forces. In communities where the practice is prevalent, marrying a girl as a child is part of a cluster of social norms and attitudes that reflect the low value accorded to the human rights of girls (UNICEF, 2017). More than 650 million women and girls alive today were married before their 18th birthday. Nineteen per cent of women between the ages of 20 and 24 around the world were child brides. And while child marriage is most prevalent in low- and middle-income countries, it also takes place in high-income countries (UNFPA, 2022). Also, the dowry system dehumanizes women by treating them as property — goods that can be exchanged. To make matters worse, the system also casts them as a burden, rather than an asset, to be passed along — a bride‘s family pays the groom‘s family for the cost of taking care of the bride (Mc Carthy, 2017). In the Philippines, the RA 11596 or the AN ACT PROHIBITING THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE AND IMPOSING PENALTIES FOR VIOLATIONS THEREOF signed and implemented. Child refers to any human being under eighteen (18) years of age, or any person eighteen (18) years of age or over but who is unable to fully take care and protect oneself from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or condition; Unlawful Acts: (a) Facilitation of Child Marriage. – Any person who causes, fixes, facilitates, or arranges a child marriage shall suffer the penalty of prision mayor in its medium period and a fine of not less than Forty thousand pesos (P40,000.00): Provided, however, That should the perpetrator be an ascendant, parent, adoptive parent, step parent, or guardian of the child, the penalty shall be prision mayor in its maximum period, a fine of not less than Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000.00), and perpetual loss of parental authority: Provided, further, That any person who produces, prints, issues and/or distributes fraudulent or tampered documents such as birth certificates, affidavits of delayed registration of birth and/or foundling certificates for the purpose of misrepresenting the age of a child to facilitate child marriage or evade liability under this Act shall be liable under this section, without prejudice to liability under other laws: Provided, finally, That if the perpetrator is a public officer, he or she shall be dismissed from the service and may be perpetually disqualified from holding office, at the discretion of the courts; Unlawful Acts: (b) Solemnization of Child Marriage. – Any person who performs or officiates a child marriage shall suffer the penalty of prision mayor in its maximum period and a fine of not less than Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000.00): Provided, however, That if the perpetrator is a public officer, he or she shall be dismissed from the service and may be perpetually disqualified from holding office, at the discretion of the courts; and Unlawful Acts: (c) Cohabitation of an Adult with a Child Outside Wedlock. – An adult partner who cohabits with a child outside wedlock shall suffer the penalty of prision mayor in its maximum period and a fine of not less than Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000.00): Provided, however, That if the perpetrator is a public officer, he or she shall likewise be dismissed from the service and may be perpetually disqualified from holding office, at the discretion of the. courts: Provided, finally, That this shall be without prejudice to higher penalties that may be imposed in the Revised Penal Code and other special laws. Farewell Intercourse Law Egyptian husbands may soon be legally allowed to have sex with their dead wives for up to six hours after they have been pronounced dead. The proposed law surfaced on May 2012 which will essentially legalize necrophilia for up to six hours (Hsu, 2012). Virginity Testing Is a gynecological inspection of female genitalia carried out in the false belief that it can reliably determine whether a woman or girl has had vaginal intercourse. Women and girls are often forced to undergo virginity testing for various reasons, including requests from parents or potential partners to establish marriage eligibility or even from potential employers including to assess their virtue, honor or social value (UN, 2018). The two most common techniques used for “virginity testing” are the visual inspection of the hymen for size or tears and the two-finger vaginal insertion. A long-term effect includes self-hatred, loss of self-esteem, depression, a sense of violation of one‘s privacy, and re-victimization (for survivors of sexual assault) has also been reported by women and girls. Women or girls can be ostracized or even killed because they have had (or they are believed to have had) sexual intercourse outside of norms imposed by society. “Virginity testing” constitutes discrimination against women and a form of sexual violence as it has the effect or purpose of denying women their rights on a basis of equality with men (WHO, 2014). Son Preference Son preference is explicitly expressed by parents and families in patriarchal norms. The son is perceived to be the breadwinner, the future head of the family and the supporter of parents in their old age. Son preference encourages the girl child to be treated as unwanted, often resulting in disadvantage and neglect (Centre for Reproductive Rights, 2004). Traditions are long-established patterns of actions or behaviors, often handed down within a community over many generations. These customs are based on the beliefs and values held by members of the community. Traditions are often protected by taboos, which strong social prohibitions (or bans) are relating to human activity or social custom based on moral judgment and religious beliefs. This means that traditions are not easy to change, because people adhere to these patterns of behavior, believing that they are the right things to do (UNFPA, 2005). Women face multiple forms of discrimination in their everyday lives; they have an increased risk of poverty and limited negotiating power and access to resources. They also endure the greatest hardships resulting from the proliferation of under-resourced and often spatially segregated urban areas (UNHABITAT, 2020). The European Institute for Gender Equality (2014) reiterated that gender issues include all aspects and concerns related to women‘s and men‘s lives and situations in the society to the way they interrelate, their differences in access due to and use of resources, their activities and how they react to changes, interventions and policies. TAKE AWAY TRIVIA Uganda’s Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2014. The said law criminalizes sexual activity between people of the same sex. It also criminalizes the promotion or recognition of such activity by any individual, governmental entity or nongovernmental entity either inside or outside of Uganda. According to the law, first-time offenders will get 14 years in prison. Repeat offenders will get life in prison. Also, any Ugandan who breaks the law outside of the country will be extradited to Uganda for prosecution. However, on August 1, 2014, the Constitutional Court decided that the Anti-Homosexuality Act was invalid (Ambrosino, 2014). Stride of the Filipino Women Across Time Corrine Grace C. Opada, MSDA  Women during pre- colonial Philippines The women of the pre-Hispanic era were given importance, they could even hold high characters in communities like healers, priestesses, and they could even handle leadership roles and fight as warriors. As part of the line for the heir and heiresses of a Datu, his daughter could be one of the choices. Men and women were treated equally, they had equal rights. Women had the right to inherit property and they also had important parts in business and trading. They would weave, do pottery and make jewelries to be used for exchanging in the market, in other tribes and other foreign traders like the Chinese. They controlled the operations of transactions because their husbands were not allowed to barter unless their wives approved (Virola, 2007 & Saldua, 2012). The Babaylan or the healer was usually a woman and when an occasion arises that a man would take this role he needs to dress up as a woman. They were looked up to because of their wisdom and knowledge. When problems in communities arise and there are no other means to fix it, the Babaylan is the one to be called; she would perform rituals and chants to drive away the spirits that caused turmoil. Also, during the pre-colonial period, one of the first few things a man would learn is that he should always respect women. Disrespecting women was unthinkable, if a man does not show respect to a woman, he would be labeled negatively by the society. Filipino Women had the power to decide for themselves, they controlled how they lived. They enjoyed equal status with men, were known for their wisdom and knowledge, and enjoyed the privileges of human rights. Husbands treated their wives as companions and partners, not slaves; women were respected and had a deeply rooted place in the community. They had rights, they can have property, and they conducted business, and had a public life— making it apparent that the equality between men and women in the pre-colonial Philippines really existed (Cequina, 2021). The legendary Lubluban, regarded as the great granddaughter of the first man and woman, was the Philippines first Visayan lawgiver who hails from the islands of Panay. Lubluban helped the datus write and promulgate laws and efficiently tackled all concerns regarding ritual practices, properties, and inheritance. Women were highly regarded during this time and apparently, there was no gender disparity in the pre-colonial era. The existence and power of the babaylans is one proof that women played such a pivotal role as men did. But to accurately put it, women were not superior to men, but they definitely enjoyed great social stature. The glorious years of the women were destroyed when the Spanish arrived during the 16th century (Saldua, 2012). The respected status Filipino women enjoyed during the pre-Spanish Philippines were predicated on the notion of equality and partnership dictated by the social roles played by both men and women. Spanish conquest of the Philippines altered the existing social order. The Spanish imposed religion in the colony which had so much misogynistic ideas that demeaned women (Aguja, 2013). They brought with them their own idea of what a woman is and where she is supposed to be placed in society. From men and women being equal, women were turned into objects of suppression. The ideal woman for the Spaniards is someone who is overly religious, submissive, and obedient. During the Spanish occupation the woman being subordinate was instilled, men rising as the dominant gender, establishing a patriarchal society that has prevailed and surpassed generations, and is now the prevalent type of society that we follow. Women were no longer allowed to hold high positions and participate in political activities. She was even snatched of her right to express her thoughts being instructed to stay within the shadows with her lips sealed. The Four Decades of American Regime During the American period, Filipino women were no longer secluded within the narrow confines of the home. By the time of the American occupation (1940s), a significant number of Filipino women had become educated (Stiftung, 2001). The coming of the Americans opened avenues of participation in the public sphere to Filipino women primarily through education (Salcedo, 2013). This created opportunities for women to earn college degrees and learn the essentials of business. Women thus started to share professional careers with men in the fields of law, medicine, education, pharmacy and nursing. Women were employed in managerial positions as heads of business firms dealing in textiles and native cloths, jewelry, embroideries, pawnshops, rice and foodstuff, bakeries, real estate, and transportation (Stiftung, 2001). The Filipino women during the American occupation started taking small steps towards empowerment but were still too cautious to disrupt the traditional roles of women in the family (Salcedo, 2013). In the hope of further shedding off their status as second-class citizens, these women enjoined and organized other women to fight for the right to suffrage. The Suffragist Movement provided inroads for women to get into politics. The influence of women in business has even extended to retail and other industries previously dominated by men. The role of women in society during the American regime showed their evolving presence in the economy. Filipinas were given more responsibilities as managers in different industries because of their leadership skills and good work ethics. The significance of this is that women were able to get the opportunity to break away from traditional gender-related roles (Peralta, 2015). The Japanese Occupation Japan claimed to desire the establishment of an “Asia for the Asians” by eradicating American and European stranglehold in Asia. The Japanese did not only control politics and economics during the war years, they likewise prepared a cultural and educational plan to remold the Filipinos‘ way of thinking which they believed to have lost its Asian identity because of Western colonizers. Japan advocated the home as woman‘s place, and motherhood as the highest virtue but this pretentious protection proved empty for the Japanese committed the most atrocious crimes against countless Filipino women (Apostol, 1998). While gender relations during pre-colonial times were not completely egalitarian in all respects, it cannot be denied that women exercised some measure of autonomy in some important spheres. Women played significant economic roles in the community. They did not rely on men for survival. They were, instead, men‘s indispensable partners in production. Women were valued and their wisdom sought and respected. They were the keepers of the family purse. They had equal rights to community property as well as in inheritance. More importantly, they exercised control over their reproductive functions although, admittedly, the burden of domestic work remained on their shoulders (Salcedo, 2013). Struggles in the Modern Times Corrine Grace C. Opada, MSDA Gender bias is undermining our social fabric and devalues all of us. It is not just a human rights issue; it is a tremendous waste of world‘s human potential. By denying women equal rights, we deny half the population a chance to live life at its fullest (NEDA, 2021). Philippines have made considerable strides in wage equality between men and women in recent years including in the areas of female participation in politics and female education attainment. The country had made significant progress in closing gender gaps in economic participation and opportunity, and health and survival. A report also shows that currently women outnumber men in senior and leadership roles in both technical and professional fields (Hocking, 2022). However, the nation is also considered one of the most dangerous places in Asia for women, with harassment and assault laws poorly enforced or ignored. GENDER GAP OR GENDER DIVIDE is the difference between women and men as reflected in social, political, intellectual, cultural, or economic attainments or attitudes. The Global Gender Gap Index aims to measure this gap in four key areas: health, education, economics and politics. Example, the gap in economics, is the difference between men and women when it comes to salaries, the number of leaders and participation in the workplace (WEF, 2017). Philippines‘ high ranking in the Global Gender Gap Report 2021 is heavily attributed to the policies and laws that aim to promote women‘s rights in the Philippines, including the 2012 Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act. Pre-existing discriminatory social norms, often based on gender, age, socioeconomic class or religion, are still tightly held by community members and those who play a crucial role in implementing the laws. SEX TRAFFICKING AND PROSTITUTION The PCW views prostitution as an exploitative system that commodities and dehumanizes women, men and children who are being victimized within the system. As a form of sexual exploitation, prostitution violates a person‘s human rights. In providing instant sexual gratification for powerful “clientele” who are mostly male, prostitution reinforces the subordinate status of the more vulnerable individuals who, more often than not, are women and children. Prostitution is a complex issue involving a host of socio-cultural, economic and political factors that result in the marginalization and subordination of the prostituted person (Philippine Commission on Women, 2012). Women who enter into prostitution settle with the limited options available to them due to poverty, unemployment, under-education, and other socio-economic conditions that put women at greater risk. These dire conditions force women into prostitution, which according to survivors, is “the choice made by those who have no choice”. In the Philippines, the existence of gender inequality, rampant unemployment, under-education, and economic disparity appear to be the root causes of prostitution. This unfortunate situation will continue as long as the market for sexual exploitation exists. Addressing the system of prostitution by penalizing the real culprits – the traffickers, pimps, customers or buyers of sex and the exploiters, and decriminalizing those who are exploited in the system of prostitution, will eventually lead to eradicating the problem of prostitution and will help in promoting women‘s rights and gender equality in the country ((Philippine Commission on Women, 2012). DOMESTIC VIOLENCE It refers to violence emanating from the household and within relationships defined by familial or emotional (former or present) attachment. The greater the degree of privacy in the household, the more likely it is that acts of violence will remain hidden. Where there is overlap between the private and public spheres, as in the case of homeless people, the violent act is more likely to attract attention. It is acknowledged that men are also victims of domestic violence but the prevalence rates of domestic violence against males remains low (Archer, 1994). Males are undoubtedly the main perpetrators of violent acts, but they are not the main victims of all kinds of violence (Fletcher, 1995). Certainly, women can be perpetrators of violence. As the literature points out, violence is not an exclusively male domain (Brott, 1993). CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: NEED FOR A MULTI- LEVEL MODEL The causes of domestic violence are multiple and complex. A 'complete understanding of gender abuse may require acknowledging factors operating on multiple levels' (Heisse, 1997). Feminist perspectives, proclaiming patriarchy as the overarching cause of domestic violence, have dominated the field in recent years and have substantially advanced our understandings of domestic violence. While theories based on stress, social learning, personality disorders or alcohol abuse may suggest why individual men become violent, they do not explain why women are so persistently the target' and feminist analysis fills the gap in understanding this phenomenon. However, feminist explanations of violence have tended to ignore or underplay other factors contributing to abuse (Fitzroy, 1997; Heisse, 1997). Before the pandemic, one in every four Filipino women had experienced domestic violence, but when Covid-19 struck the country, the number of cases rose steeply. The Philippine Statistics Authority reported an increase in cases of rape from 1, 656 in 2018 to 2,168 in 2020. At the height of the Covid-19 lockdowns, from March to May 2020, the Philippine government recorded an average of eight victim-survivors of sexual assault every day and a threefold increase in tips reporting online sexual exploitation of children (Tolosa, 2022). SEXUAL HARASSMENT The Supreme Court held it was high-time to correct the society‘s notion that women are the weaker sex and the only victims of sexual harassment because this is discriminatory against men who have suffered the same plight. Sexual harassment is not an issue of gender but an issue of power (Supreme Court of the Philippines, 2020). Sexual harassment happen every-day, everywhere, to everyone. It is sad to think that it may be as common as the cold. The virus of this crime comes in many forms —power relations, psychological factors, moral and cultural values — and depends on each situation. Each case is nevertheless a violation of human rights (Cabral, 2017). LIMITED ACCESS TO REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH CARE Reproductive health care refers to the access to a full range of methods, facilities, services and supplies that contribute to reproductive health and wellbeing by addressing reproductive health-related problems. It also includes sexual health, the purpose of which is the enhancement of life and personal relations (RA 10354). The elements of reproductive health care include the following: (1) Family planning information and services (2) Maternal, infant and child health and nutrition, including breastfeeding; (3) Proscription/Forbidding of abortion and management of abortion complications; (4) Adolescent and youth reproductive health guidance and counseling; (5) Prevention, treatment and management of reproductive tract infections (RTIs), HIV and AIDS and other sexually transmittable infections (STIs); (6) Elimination of violence against women and children and other forms of sexual gender-based violence; (7) Education and counseling on sexuality and reproductive health; (8) Treatment of breast and reproductive tract cancers and other gynecological conditions and disorders; (9) Male responsibility and involvement and men‘s reproductive health (10) Prevention, treatment and management of infertility and sexual dysfunction; (11) Reproductive health education for the adolescents; and (12) Mental health aspect of reproductive health care. In addition, Reproductive Healthcare Program refers to the systematic and integrated provision of reproductive health care to all citizens prioritizing women, the poor, marginalized and those invulnerable or crisis situations Consequently, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted family planning and maternal and newborn health services globally, and in the Philippines to these indirect effects may significantly increase the annual maternal deaths and unintended pregnancies for 2020 compared with the pre-COVID years (UNFPA, 2020). As the national and local health systems are overwhelmed by the necessary response to the COVID-19 patients, attention, and resources for women's health might have been diverted. Pregnant women's utilization of facilities for ante-natal check-up and delivery is declining, because of service disruption, difficulty in commuting, and their fear of contracting COVID-19. Similarly, their access to modern contraception has also been facing challenges. Already before COVID-19, the Philippines saw about 2,600 women dying every year due to complications from pregnancy or childbirth. The maternal mortality cases in 2020 can increase to up to 670 additional deaths from the 2019 level (26 % increase). Intimate partner violence is also expected to increase, because for instance women and girls are more likely to be stuck with the abusers at home. Although many of such gender-based violence cases will be unreported, the study estimates a 20% increase in intimate partner violence, physical or sexual, in 2020 from 2019. EXPLOITATION As the world tries to contain the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been strong indicators showing the surge of online sexual exploitation of children (OSEC) because of the lockdowns. However, even before the lockdown, the Philippines had already been identified as the global hotspot for online sexual exploitation of children (Ladrido, 2020). Television programs coming from Filipino broadcasting networks often portray women as either domestic figures or sexually alluring figures in order to gain more views. When portrayed as domestic figures, women are portrayed as passive, inferior to their own male counterparts and only physically dependent as mothers and wives (Flores, 2019). Through the sexualization of women in media, it creates a hyper sexualized image of women that plays into the gender stereotypes that trivializes the subject of violence towards women.