STS-M2-Notes_Intellectual-Evolution PDF

Intellectual Revolution: Copernican Model of the Universe: Many discoveries and inventions in ancient The Sun is the center of the universe. times were driven by human needs and wants....

Intellectual Revolution: Copernican Model of the Universe: Many discoveries and inventions in ancient The Sun is the center of the universe. times were driven by human needs and wants. The Earth and all the planets move around the People created tools and technologies to make Sun in circles. life easier. Planets and stars are arranged by increasing Advancements in science and technology distance from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, sometimes changed people's perceptions and Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and stars. beliefs. The Earth's rotation causes the rising and Intellectual Revolution: A period before the setting of the Sun and the seasons. Enlightenment where developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and The movements of the stars are caused by the chemistry transformed society's views on Earth's revolution around them. nature. Kepler's Law of Planetary Motion: This era showed how society was deeply influenced by science and technology. o All planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits, not circular ones. o The closer a planet is to the Sun, the faster it Scientific Revolution (16th-17th Century): moves. Marked by the development of human thought, o The square of the period of a planet is society's transformation, and the creation of proportional to the cube of its average distance scientific ideas. from the Sun. Laid the groundwork for the Age of Enlightenment (17th-18th century). Tycho Brahe: Emphasized abstract reasoning, quantitative Proposed his own model called thought, understanding nature, viewing nature geoheliocentrism or the Tychonic System. as a machine, and developing an experimental scientific method. Stated that the Earth is the fixed center, with the Sun and Moon orbiting the Earth, and the Copernican Revolution (16th Century): other planets revolving around the Sun. Nicolaus Copernicus: Galileo Galilei: o A Polish mathematician and astronomer Used a telescope he constructed to observe the who introduced Heliocentrism. movements of the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, and o Proposed that the Sun is the center of its satellites, as well as the Earth orbiting around the Solar System. the Sun. His model gained respect and recognition Was the first to observe the craters of the almost 100 years later through further Moon. exploration by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Discovered the existence of sunspots. and Galileo Galilei. Established the correct relationship between This period became known as the Birth of distance, velocity, and acceleration using the Modern Astronomy and marked the beginning new scientific method. of the Scientific Revolution. Newton's Laws of Motion: The theory of evolution by natural selection describes how organisms evolve over o 1st Law (Law of Inertia): generations through the inheritance of physical or behavioral traits. ▪ An object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will continue Often referred to as the “Father of Evolution.” moving at the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by a Freudian Revolution: net external force. In the late 19th century, Sigmund Freud changed people’s perception of psychology with his revolutionary theory of psychoanalysis (the o 2nd Law (Law of Acceleration): study that explains human behavior). ▪ The net force FFF acting on an object of Authored a book on psychoanalysis detailing the mass mmm produces acceleration, methodology for treating mental illnesses, expressed as F=maF = maF=ma. earning him the title “Father of Psychoanalysis.” ▪ Force is directly proportional to the object's acceleration. Explained that there are many conscious and unconscious factors that can influence behavior and emotions. o 3rd Law (Law of Interaction): Claimed that personality is composed of three ▪ For every action, there is an equal and structures: the id, ego, and superego. opposite reaction. His concept of psychoanalysis led to classifying psychology as a science. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: ID: Biological: o Every body in the universe attracts another o Unconscious and most basic part of our body with a force that is: personality. ▪ Directly proportional to the product of o Present since birth. the masses of the objects. o Operates by the pleasure principle. ▪ Inversely proportional to the square of o Seeks instant gratification for desires, wants, and the distance of separation between needs to avoid feeling anything other than pleasure. them. o If needs or wants are not met, a person can Charles Darwin: become tense, anxious, or angry. In 1859, an English naturalist, biologist, and o Childish and impulsive; does what it wants geologist, published the book “On the Origin of intensely without considering consequences. Species by Means of Natural Selection.” o Does not mature and resides within everyone as they age. Introduced the Theory of Evolution, which postulated that populations undergo a process of natural selection where only the fittest survive. Stated that organisms have the ability to adapt to their environment and gradually change into forms that are more competitive for survival, a process known as evolution.  Examples: boss was there, she decided to wait another minute or two until she sat down to eat. o Sally was thirsty and drank from Mr. Antonio's glass instead of waiting for the server. Mary really wanted to borrow her mom's necklace but knew her mom would be angry if she took it without o A hungry baby cried until fed. asking, so she asked her mom if she could wear it. o A toddler whined for another serving of dessert SUPEREGO: Social: until given more. o Based on morals and judgments about right and o Amy shoved croutons in her mouth while waiting wrong. in line at the salad bar. o Ethical component; judicial structure of the o Bart was stuck in traffic. He just wanted his personality. vehicle to move! Enraged at the situation, Bart pulled his car onto the shoulder and sped o Ego ideal includes rules and standards for good forward, not caring that he was clipping people's behavior learned from parents and authority side mirrors as he tried to get ahead of the cars figures. in front of him. o Conscience allows for self-evaluation and criticism, governed by a reward and punishment system. EGO: Psychological: o Works regardless of perceived consequences or o Operates on the reality principle. benefits. o Functions as a “referee” that balances the needs o Often does not maintain the idea of “the end of the ID against societal demands and justifies the means.” expectations. o Controls and regulates a person according to the outside world, maintaining realistic and logical thinking to satisfy needs in a socially acceptable manner. o May involve delaying gratification and reducing the tension the ID feels if a desire is not met immediately. o Recognizes that others have needs and wants too, and being selfish isn’t beneficial long-term. Example: o Sarah knew she could steal supplies from work without being caught, but she chose not to take anything because she recognized that stealing was wrong. o Maggie couldn't remember the answer to test question #12, even though she had studied. Nate was the smartest kid in the class, and from where Maggie sat, she could see his answers if she turned her head slightly. When Mrs. Archer turned her back, Maggie almost cheated, but her conscience stopped her because she knew it was Example: wrong. Instead, Maggie took a guess at the answer and then turned in her paper. Sally was thirsty. However, she knew that her server would be back soon to refill her water glass, so she waited until o The cashier only charged the couple for one meal then to get a drink, even though she really just wanted to even though they had eaten two. They could drink from Mr. Antonio‘s glass. have gotten away with only paying for one, but they pointed out the cashier's mistake and In line at the salad bar, Amy really wanted to shove a offered to pay for both meals. They wanted to be handful of croutons into her mouth. However, since her  honest and they knew that the restaurant owner Known for Hooke’s Law, stating that the force and employees needed to make a living. required to extend or compress a spring is o On the playground, two kids were making fun of proportional to the distance of that extension or Joseph because he wore glasses. John was compression. tempted to join in so that he could make himself look good, but when he thought about how bad William Harvey (1578-1657): Joseph must already feel, he knew that he couldn't. First to correctly describe blood circulation in o Will had worked hard all season to break the the body. school record in cross-country. During his last Showed that arteries and veins form a complete race, he had the opportunity to cut a corner and circuit starting and returning to the heart. therefore lower his time, because no officials were watching that part of the course. As much William Gilbert: as he wanted to break the school record, Will knew he wouldn't feel good about himself if he Discovered that Earth has two magnetic poles cheated, so he stuck to the course and ran as fast and defined them correctly, establishing that as he could. Earth behaves like a giant magnet. Rene Descartes: Key Historical Figures: Known as the “Father of Modern Philosophy.” Robert Boyle (1627-1691): Inventor of the Cartesian coordinate system and founder of analytic geometry; crucial for 1st rational chemist; considered the first the invention of calculus and mathematical modern chemist and one of the founders of analysis. modern chemistry. Discovered that the volume of a gas decreases Giordano Bruno (1548-1600): with increasing pressure (Boyle's Law). Martyred Italian monk who spread Copernicus’s Designed a new vacuum pump and conducted theory of heliocentrism. experiments in a vacuum, discovering that sound cannot transmit in a vacuum and a candle Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): cannot burn. Known as the “Father of Microbiology.” Discovered bacteria and spermatozoa in humans and other mammals, as well as in Francis Bacon (1561-1626): mollusks, fish, amphibians, and birds. Initiated the scientific method of New or Modern Science. Advocated that all knowledge should be based on evidence, observations, and experiments; EVOLUTION by Charles Darwin developed the inductive method in science. Darwin's Theory of Evolution: Christiaan Huygens (1626-1695): Evolution is the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient Mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who organisms. formulated the wave theory of light. Discovered the pendulum clock, centrifugal A scientific theory is a well-supported, testable force, and the true shape of the rings of Saturn explanation of natural phenomena. (including its moon, Titan). Credited as the first theoretical physicist to use Voyage of the Beagle: formulae in physics. Date: February 12th, 1831 Robert Hooke (1635-1703): Captain: Charles Darwin  Ship: H.M.S. Beagle Darwin observed that the characteristics of many plants and animals varied greatly among Destination: Voyage around the world. the islands. Findings: Evidence to propose a revolutionary Hypothesis: Separate species may have arisen hypothesis about how life changes over time. from a common ancestor. Patterns of Diversity: Ideas That Shaped Darwin's Thinking: Darwin visited Argentina and Australia, which James Hutton (1795 Theory of Geological had similar grassland ecosystems but very Change): different animals. o Forces change Earth's surface shape; Neither Argentina nor Australia had the same changes are slow. animals as European grasslands. o Earth is much older than previously Darwin questioned why there were no rabbits in thought. Australia or kangaroos in England. Charles Lyell (Principles of Geography): Living Organisms and Fossils: o Geographical features can be built up or Darwin collected fossils, the preserved remains torn down. of ancient organisms. o Darwin wondered if life could also Some fossils resembled current organisms, change over time if Earth did. while others were unlike any living creature. Lamarck's Theory of Evolution: This led to questions about why certain species disappeared and how they were related to living o Tendency Toward Perfection (e.g., species. giraffe necks). o Use and Disuse (e.g., bird's using The Galápagos Islands: forearms). The smallest, lowest islands like Hood Island o Inheritance of Acquired Traits. were hot, dry, and barren with sparse vegetation. Higher islands like Isabela Island had greater Population Growth: rainfall and rich vegetation. o Thomas Malthus: 19th-century English Darwin was particularly fascinated by the land economist. tortoises and marine iguanas. o If the population grew (more babies Tortoises varied predictably from one island to born than died): another; their shell shape indicated their ▪ Insufficient living space. specific island. ▪ Food shortages. Animals found in the Galápagos included: o Darwin applied this theory to animals. o Land Tortoises o Darwin's Finches o Blue-Footed Booby Publication of Origin of Species: o Marine Iguanas o Russel Wallace wrote an essay summarizing evolutionary change from The Journey Home: his fieldwork in Malaysia.  o This motivated Darwin to publish his ▪ Structures with different findings. mature forms in different organisms but develop from the same embryonic tissue. Natural Selection & Artificial Selection: o Similarities in Early Development. o Natural Variation: Differences among Homologous Structures: individuals of a species. o Structures that have different mature o Artificial Selection: Nature provides forms in different organisms but variation among organisms; humans develop from the same embryonic select the variations they find useful. tissue. Evolution by Natural Selection: Vestigial Organs: o The Struggle for Existence: Members of o Organs that serve no useful function in each species must compete for food, an organism (e.g., appendix, miniature shelter, and other necessities. legs, arms). o Survival of the Fittest: Some individuals Similarities in Early Development are better suited for their environment. o Natural Selection: ▪ Over time, natural selection results in changes in inherited characteristics. ▪ These changes increase a species' fitness in its environment. Descent: Summary of Darwin's Theory: o Descent with Modification: Each living organism has descended, with changes, o Individuals in nature differ from one from other species over time. another. o Common Descent: All organisms were o Organisms in nature produce more derived from common ancestors. offspring than can survive; many of those who do not survive do not Evidence of Evolution: reproduce. o The Fossil Record: o Because more organisms are produced than can survive, each species must ▪ Fossil layers show change over struggle for resources. time. o Each organism is unique, with its own o Geographic Distribution of Living advantages and disadvantages in the Things: struggle for existence. ▪ Similar environments have Summary (cont.): similar types of organisms. o Homologous Body Structures:  o Individuals best suited for the The late Middle Ages paved the way for the Scientific environment survive and reproduce Revolution. successfully. Science underwent a revolution, marking the start of o Species change over time. the modern era, where developments in astronomy, physics, mathematics, biology (including human o Species alive today descended with anatomy), and chemistry changed societal norms modification from species that lived in and views on nature. the past. The 18th century ushered in the late middle ages, o All organisms on Earth are united into a known as the period of the Scientific Revolution. single family tree of life by common The Scientific Revolution was the emergence of descent. modern science during the early modern period, transforming societal views about nature through advancements in various scientific fields. Intellectual Revolutions that Changed PARADIGM SHIFT Paradigm: Worldviews A scientific paradigm is a framework containing commonly accepted views about a subject, Scientific Revolution guiding research direction and methodology. Definition: The drastic change in scientific Thomas Kuhn: Paradigm includes practices that thought during the 16th and 17th centuries that define a scientific discipline at a certain time. led to a new view of nature, replacing the Greek ideas that dominated science for nearly 2,000 Paradigms contain established patterns, years. theories, methods, and standards that classify experimental results within a field. Impact: Paradigms are historically and culturally bound. o Science became an autonomous discipline, distinct from philosophy and A Paradigm Dictates: technology. What is observed and measured. o Science was increasingly regarded as The questions asked about observations. having utilitarian goals. How questions are formulated. How results are interpreted. Copernican Revolution How research is conducted. What equipment is appropriate. Pre-Copernican System (Geocentric System): Paradigm Shift: Origins: Traced back to Greek philosopher Kuhn: "The successive transition from one Anaximander of Miletus (c. 610-546 B.C.). paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science." Key Contributors: A paradigm shift is not a threat to science but o Pythagoras (c. 570-495 B.C.): Suggested the way it progresses. the Earth was a sphere. Scientific Revolution:  o Plato (c. 428-348 B.C.): Explained that Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): Known the cosmos were made of geometric as the “Father of Microbiology” for discovering shapes circling around the Earth. bacteria. o Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): Posited that Robert Boyle (1627-1691): Utilized the Scientific the Earth was the center of the Method, contributing to the foundation of universe, with celestial bodies in modern chemistry. concentric crystalline spheres around it. o Ptolemy (140 A.D.): Popularized and Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Often called the refined the geocentric model, which Father of Modern Science, he advocated for the was widely accepted, depicting the scientific method. Earth as unmoving while the Sun, planets, and stars revolved around it. Rene Descartes (1596-1650): Practiced deductive reasoning and the scientific method Copernican System (Heliocentric System): in solving problems, laying the groundwork for o Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): modern scientific inquiry. ▪ “Father of Modern Astronomy” ▪ Developed the heliocentric model, placing the Sun at the center of the known Darwinian Revolution universe. ▪ The Earth's rotation was responsible for the Pre-Darwinian Belief rising and setting of the Sun and the change of seasons. Evolution in Biology: The idea that species ▪ Rejection: His work was initially rejected undergo slow changes in characteristics over because it conflicted with Aristotelian time. Physics and lacked mathematical Controversy: Evolution was controversial due to description. its conflict with religious beliefs. Validation of the Copernican System: Erasmus Darwin: In the late 18th century, he o Tycho Brahe (1546-1601): Combined subtly introduced the idea of evolution in elements of the Copernican and England and France. Ptolemaic Systems. Darwin's Theory of Evolution o Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): Proposed Early Education: the laws of planetary motion in 1609, supporting the heliocentric theory. o Charles Darwin entered Edinburgh University at age 16 to study medicine. o Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): Published a book reinforcing that the Earth revolved o He discovered his passion for natural around the Sun based on his sciences and worked with key figures: observations. ▪ Robert Edmond Grant: o Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1726): Provided Anatomist and zoologist. the first mathematical equations ▪ Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: proving Copernicus’s notions. Biologist known for his early Key Figures of the Scientific Revolution theories of evolution. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600): Spread Exploration and Influences Copernicus’s theory of a heliocentric and Influential Figures: scientific universe.  o Adam Sedgwick: Geologist who worked o Ornithologist John Gould: Identified with Darwin on geological research. bird specimens Darwin brought from the Galapagos as Ground Finches, with o John Stevens Henslow: Mentor who mockingbirds being unique to each accompanied Darwin on the voyage to island. Tierra del Fuego. Voyage of the HMS Beagle: Evolutionary Science and Philosophy o Darwin collected and studied specimens Completion of the Copernican Revolution: from various regions, leading to his Darwin’s work is seen as completing the shift in groundbreaking observations. understanding nature, initiated by the Copernican Revolution. o In 1836, he documented his findings in the Journal of Researches, later published in Fitzroy’s Zoology of the Development of Fields: Voyage of the HMS Beagle. o Evolutionary Biology: Focuses on the o His observations led him to develop a origin and diversification of life, as well new understanding of the origin of as adaptation processes. species, challenging existing naturalist views. o Neo-Darwinism: Integrates Darwin’s theory of evolution with the principles Observations and Publication of heredity. Common Ancestry: Darwin noticed similarities o Philosophy of Biology: Explores the among different species across the world, relationship between biology and classic suggesting they shared a common ancestor. philosophical issues in the philosophy of science. Natural Selection: He proposed that species survive through a process of natural selection, where they adapt to changing environments, while those that cannot adapt eventually die Freudian Revolution out. Sigmund Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis Publication: Background: o In 1859, Darwin published his theory in o Freud dedicated his life to expanding On the Origin of Species by Means of human understanding of the mind Natural Selection. through clinical research and the Contributions and Legacy development of psychoanalytic theories. Father of Evolution: Charles Darwin is recognized as the "Father of Evolution" for his o He was influenced by Joseph Breuer, contributions to the understanding of biological who taught him hypnosis as a treatment evolution. for patients with hysteria. Verification: Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory: Human o Anatomist Richard Owen: Confirmed Nature that Darwin’s Uruguay Skull belonged to Deterministic View: a South American Capybara. o Freud believed that human behavior is determined by irrational forces,  unconscious motivations, and biological o The Ego balances the demands of the ID instincts. with the moral standards of the Superego. o These influences are rooted in psychosexual stages that occur during Superego: the first six years of life. o The Superego represents the judicial Energy Exchange: structure of personality, holding internalized moral standards and ideals. o Human nature, according to Freud, is an exchange of energy and transformation, o It forms guidelines for judgment based often released through catharsis—the on what is considered right and wrong process of releasing strong or repressed by parents and society. emotions. Unconscious Motivations: Parts of the Superego: o Freud argued that much of human o Ego Ideal: Contains the rules and behavior is driven by unconscious standards for good behavior learned motivations and instinctual drives. from parents and authority figures. o Main Instincts: o Conscience: Allows for self-evaluation ▪ Eros (Life Instincts): Drives and criticism, holding all information on related to survival, such as actions viewed as bad or evil by parents hunger, thirst, and sexual and society. impulses. The Superego ensures that the Ego adheres to ▪ Thanatos (Death Instincts): these moral standards, guiding behavior Aggressive and self-destructive according to societal expectations. impulses. Structures of Personality ID: o The ID represents the unconscious aspect of personality and is driven by basic instincts and impulses. o It seeks immediate gratification of desires, focusing solely on pleasure. o The ID is untamed and operates without consideration for social norms or consequences. Ego: o The Ego is responsible for dealing with reality and acts as the referee between the ID and social norms. o It performs realistic and logical thinking, striving to satisfy the ID's needs in socially acceptable ways.