Sociology Notes on Deindustrialization and Globalization PDF

Deindustrialisation refers to the decline of manufacturing industries in a city or region, often leading to job losses and economic restructuring. The Global City thesis, proposed by Saskia Sassen, suggests that certain cities have become global hubs for finance, commerce, and culture, driving econ...

Deindustrialisation refers to the decline of manufacturing industries in a city or region, often leading to job losses and economic restructuring. The Global City thesis, proposed by Saskia Sassen, suggests that certain cities have become global hubs for finance, commerce, and culture, driving economic growth and urbanization. Social Polarisation refers to the increasing social and economic inequality within cities, leading to a gap between the rich and the poor. These concepts are interconnected: - Deindustrialisation has led to the decline of well-paying manufacturing jobs, contributing to social polarisation. - The Global City thesis has resulted in the growth of high-paying jobs in finance and services, exacerbating social polarisation. - Social polarisation has led to gentrification, displacement of low-income communities, and increased social and economic segregation in cities. These processes have transformed urban landscapes, leading to increased inequality and social spatial segregation. Sassen, S. 1994. Cities in a World Economy: The New Inequalities within Cities. Thousand Oaks, Pine Forge Press Summary Saskia Sassen's 1994 book "Cities in a World Economy: The New Inequalities within Cities" explores the impact of globalization on cities and the resulting social and economic inequalities. Here's a summary: - Globalization has led to the emergence of global cities, which are strategic sites for the production and management of global capital. - These global cities (e.g., New York, London, Tokyo) have become hubs for finance, commerce, and services, driving economic growth and urbanization. - However, this growth has also led to increased social and economic inequalities within cities, as the benefits of globalization have largely accrued to the top tier of the population. - Sassen argues that the globalization of economies has created new forms of inequality, including: - Income inequality - Social polarization - Spatial segregation - Cultural homogenization - She also notes that the decline of manufacturing and the rise of the service sector have led to a feminization of the workforce and the growth of low-wage and precarious work. - Sassen concludes that cities must develop new strategies to address these inequalities and promote more equitable and sustainable development. Overall, the book highlights the complex and often contradictory effects of globalization on cities and their residents. Baum, S. 1997. Sydney, Australia: a Global City? Testing the Social Polarisation Thesis. Urban Studies, 34:1881-1902. Summary In the article "Sydney, Australia: a Global City? Testing the Social Polarisation Thesis" (1997), Scott Baum examines the social polarization thesis in the context of Sydney, Australia. Here's a summary: - Baum tests the social polarization thesis, which suggests that globalization leads to increased income inequality and social polarization in global cities. - He analyzes Sydney's economic and social structures, including income distribution, labor markets, and spatial segregation. - The study finds that Sydney exhibits some characteristics of a global city, but the evidence for social polarization is mixed. - While there is some income inequality and spatial segregation, the city's social structure is more complex and nuanced than the thesis suggests. - Baum concludes that the social polarization thesis may not be universally applicable and that local factors, such as government policies and labor market conditions, can influence the impact of globalization on cities. Overall, the article provides a case study of Sydney that challenges the generalizability of the social polarization thesis and highlights the need for more context-specific research on global cities. [06/13, 20:50] Tshegofatso M.: The Professionalisation Argument [06/13, 20:50] Meta AI: The Professionalisation Argument, in the context of urban studies and sociology, suggests that the growth of professional and managerial classes in global cities has contributed to social polarization and inequality. This argument posits that: 1. Globalization has led to the expansion of high-end service industries, such as finance, law, and consulting, in global cities. 2. These industries require highly educated and skilled professionals, who are often rewarded with high salaries and benefits. 3. The concentration of these professionals in global cities has created a distinct social class, with its own cultural and social norms. 4. This professional class has become disconnected from the rest of the population, leading to social polarization and inequality. 5. The professionalisation of urban economies has also led to the gentrification of neighborhoods, displacement of low-income communities, and increased spatial segregation. The Professionalisation Argument highlights how the growth of professional and managerial classes has contributed to urban inequality, challenging the notion that globalization solely benefits the wealthy. [06/13, 20:50] Tshegofatso M.: Hamnett, C. 1994. Social polarisation in global cities: theory and evidence. Urban studies, 31:401 - 424. Hamnett, C. 2021. The changing social structure of global cities: Professionalisation, proletarianisation or polarisation. Urban studies, 58(5):1050-1066. Chris Hamnett's work explores social polarization in global cities, focusing on the changing social structures and economic dynamics. Here's a summary of his key arguments: 1994 article: - Hamnett critiques the idea that global cities are solely characterized by polarization between the rich and the poor. - He argues that social polarization is more complex, involving the growth of a professional and managerial class. - This class has distinct cultural and social norms, leading to social segregation and inequality. - Hamnett suggests that globalization has led to the expansion of high-end service industries, contributing to social polarization. 2021 article: - Hamnett revisits the concept of social polarization in global cities, considering three possible trajectories: professionalisation, proletarianisation, or polarisation. - He argues that professionalisation (the growth of high-skilled professionals) and proletarianisation (the expansion of low-wage jobs) are both occurring simultaneously. - However, polarisation remains a dominant trend, with the professional class becoming increasingly disconnected from the rest of the population. - Hamnett highlights the need for nuanced understandings of social change in global cities, considering multiple trajectories and their intersections. Hamnett's work offers valuable insights into the complex social dynamics of global cities, emphasizing the importance of considering multiple perspectives and trajectories. Labour Market Changes in South African Cities: Here are some of the key labour market changes in South African cities ¹: - Increased unemployment: Despite an increase in employment, unemployment has risen due to a lack of absorption of new entrants into the labour force. - Youth unemployment: Young people entering the labour market for the first time struggle to find employment. - Chronic unemployment: Older jobseekers with previous work experience struggle with long-term unemployment. - Stagnation in small, medium, and micro enterprises: The number of employees in these sectors has remained at approximately 3.5 million. - Decreased job search: Older jobseekers are less likely to actively seek employment by enquiring at workplaces and answering job advertisements. - Segregation: The legacy of apartheid persists, with Africans still largely confined to low-skilled and low-wage jobs. - Education: The quality of education for non-whites has improved, but still lags behind that of whites. - Informal sector: The informal sector remains small, with barriers to entry and limited growth. - Labour legislation: New laws aim to address labour market rigidities while protecting workers' rights. Borel-Saladin, J. & Crankshaw, O. 2009. Social Polarisation or Professionalisation? Another Look at Theory and Evidence on Deindustrialisation and the Rise of the Service Sector. Urban Studies, 46:645- 664. Crankshaw, O. 2012. De-industrialisation, Professionalisation and Racial Inequality in Cape Town. Urban Affairs Review, 48, 839-865. Crankshaw, O. & Borel-saladin, J. 2014. Does Deindustrialisation Cause Social Polarisation in Global Cities? Environment and Planning, 46:1852-1872. Crankshaw, O. 2017. Deindustrialization and racial inequality: Social polarisation in eThekwini? Cities, 60:221-3233. These articles by Borel-Saladin and Crankshaw explore the relationships between deindustrialization, professionalization, social polarization, and racial inequality in the context of South African cities. Here's a summary of their key arguments: 2009 article: - Challenges the social polarization thesis, arguing that deindustrialization and the rise of the service sector may lead to professionalization rather than polarization. - Presents evidence from Cape Town, showing that the growth of high-skilled services has led to increased social stratification, but not necessarily polarization. 2012 article: - Examines the relationship between deindustrialization, professionalization, and racial inequality in Cape Town. - Finds that deindustrialization has led to increased racial inequality, as whites have benefited more from professionalization in the service sector. 2014 article: - Investigates whether deindustrialization causes social polarization in global cities, using evidence from Cape Town and Johannesburg. - Concludes that deindustrialization can lead to social polarization, but this is mediated by factors like the strength of the service sector and the legacy of apartheid. 2017 article: - Explores the relationship between deindustrialization and racial inequality in eThekwini (Durban), focusing on social polarization. - Finds that deindustrialization has led to increased racial inequality and social polarization, with whites and Indians benefiting more from professionalization in the service sector. These articles offer valuable insights into the complex relationships between economic restructuring, social inequality, and racial dynamics in South African cities. [06/13, 20:52] Tshegofatso M.: Social Class Reproduction [06/13, 20:52] Meta AI: Social class reproduction refers to the process by which social classes are perpetuated and reproduced over time, despite changes in the economy, technology, or other social structures. It involves the transmission of social advantages and disadvantages from one generation to the next, ensuring that individuals from higher social classes retain their privileged positions, while those from lower classes remain disadvantaged. Mechanisms of social class reproduction include: 1. Education: Elite schools and universities perpetuate privilege by providing better resources, networks, and opportunities. 2. Cultural capital: Familiarity with dominant culture, norms, and values helps individuals from higher classes navigate social and economic systems. 3. Social networks: Connections and relationships within the same class facilitate access to resources, jobs, and opportunities. 4. Economic inheritance: Wealth, property, and businesses are passed down to future generations, ensuring continued economic advantage. 5. Symbolic violence: Dominant classes impose their values, beliefs, and practices as the norm, marginalizing subordinate groups. Social class reproduction perpetuates social inequality, limiting social mobility and ensuring that individuals from lower classes face structural barriers to achieving their full potential. Giddens, A. & Sutton, P.W. 2017. Sociology. 8th ed. Cambridge: Polity Press. Chapter 21, pp. 1-18. Swartz, D. 1977. Pierre Bourdieu: The Cultural Transmission of Social Inequality. Harvard Educational Review, 47(4):545-555 Willis, P. E. 1977. Learning to labour: How working class kids get working class jobs. Columbia University Press. Chapter 2. These sources discuss social class reproduction and the ways in which societal structures and cultural norms perpetuate inequality. Giddens and Sutton (2017) explore how social classes are reproduced through institutions, such as education, and how this limits social mobility. They argue that cultural capital, habits, and social networks perpetuate privilege and disadvantage (Chapter 21). Swartz (1977) examines Pierre Bourdieu's work on cultural transmission, highlighting how cultural practices and preferences are passed down, reinforcing social inequality. Bourdieu's concept of cultural capital is key to understanding how dominant classes maintain their position. Willis (1977) conducted ethnographic research on working-class youth, showing how they are socialized to accept their place in the class structure. His book "Learning to Labour" argues that schools perpetuate class inequality by preparing working-class students for low-status jobs, reinforcing the existing social order (Chapter 2). These sources offer insights into the complex processes that perpetuate social class inequality, highlighting the role of culture, education, and institutions in shaping individual outcomes. Social Class Transformation Social class transformation refers to the process of change in an individual's social class position, either upward or downward, due to various factors such as: 1. Education and skills acquisition 2. Changes in occupation or income 3. Marriage or partnership 4. Inheritance or wealth transfer 5. Social mobility (upward or downward) Types of social class transformation: 1. Upward mobility: Moving from a lower to a higher social class (e.g., from working class to middle class) 2. Downward mobility: Moving from a higher to a lower social class (e.g., from middle class to working class) 3. Horizontal mobility: Moving within the same social class (e.g., from one working-class job to another) Factors influencing social class transformation: 1. Economic conditions (e.g., recession, economic growth) 2. Education and training opportunities 3. Discrimination and inequality (e.g., racism, sexism) 4. Cultural and social capital (e.g., networks, norms) 5. Government policies and interventions (e.g., social welfare programs, education reform) Theories related to social class transformation: 1. Social mobility theory (e.g., Blau and Duncan, 1967) 2. Cultural capital theory (e.g., Bourdieu, 1986) 3. Social reproduction theory (e.g., Bowles and Gintis, 1976) Social class transformation is an important aspect of sociological study, as it helps understand social inequality, mobility, and the dynamics of social stratification. Kaufman, P. 2003. Learning to Not Labor: How Working-Class Individuals Construct Middle-Class Identities. The Sociological Quarterly, 44:481-504. Reay, D., David, M. & Ball, S. 2005. Degrees of Choice: Social Class, Race and Gender in Higher Education. Stoke on Trent, UK: Trentham Books. Chapter 6, pp. 109-138. These sources explore how individuals from working-class backgrounds navigate social class transformation, particularly in the context of education. Kaufman (2003) examines how working-class individuals construct middle-class identities through a process of "learning to not labor." He argues that they adopt middle-class values, beliefs, and practices to distance themselves from their working-class origins. Reay, David, and Ball (2005) investigate how social class, race, and gender intersect in higher education, influencing students' choices and experiences. In Chapter 6, they explore how working-class students navigate university life, often feeling like "outsiders" in a middle-class dominated environment. Both sources highlight the complexities of social class transformation, emphasizing that it's not just about economic mobility, but also about cultural and social identity. They show how individuals from working-class backgrounds face challenges in adapting to middle-class norms and practices, and how educational institutions can perpetuate social inequality. These studies contribute to our understanding of social class transformation, highlighting the need to consider the intersections of class with other social categories like race and gender, and the importance of cultural and social capital in shaping individual trajectories. Educational Aspirations and Social Mobility (South Africa) (How values, socio-economic influences and personal experiences shape the way young people and their families approach schooling) Readings: Bray, R., Gooskens, I., Moses, S., Kahn, L. & Seekings, J. 2010. Growing up in the new South Africa: Childhood and adolescence in post-apartheid Cape Town. HSRC Press Cape Town. Chapter 6, pp. 203-252 This reading explores how values, socio-economic influences, and personal experiences shape the educational aspirations and social mobility of young people in post-apartheid Cape Town, South Africa. Key points from the chapter: 1. Socio-economic background: Families' economic status and education level significantly influence their children's educational aspirations and expectations. 2. Values and beliefs: Parents' values and beliefs about education, such as its importance for future success, impact their children's aspirations. 3. Personal experiences: Individual experiences, like teacher encouragement or peer pressure, also shape educational aspirations. 4. Race and inequality: Historical inequalities persist, with black students facing more obstacles in achieving their educational aspirations than their white counterparts. 5. Gender dynamics: Gender influences educational aspirations, with boys often receiving more support and encouragement than girls. 6. Navigation and agency: Students and families actively navigate and make decisions about their educational paths, demonstrating agency in the face of structural constraints. The chapter highlights the complex interplay of factors influencing educational aspirations and social mobility in South Africa, emphasizing the need to consider both structural and individual-level factors to address ongoing inequalities. The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis Readings: Gobillon, L., Selod, H. & Zenou, Y. 2007. The Mechanisms of Spatial Mismatch. Urban Studies, 44:2401-2428. The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis suggests that a mismatch between the location of low-skilled workers and job opportunities in urban areas can lead to higher unemployment rates and poverty. The reading by Gobillon, Selod, and Zenou (2007) explores the mechanisms behind this hypothesis. Key points from the article: 1. Spatial mismatch: Low-skilled workers often reside in areas with limited job opportunities, while jobs are concentrated in other areas, leading to a spatial mismatch. 2. Job accessibility: The accessibility of jobs, measured by the number of job openings and the distance to them, affects employment outcomes. 3. Residential segregation: The segregation of low-skilled workers in specific neighborhoods limits their access to job opportunities. 4. Transportation costs: High transportation costs can exacerbate the spatial mismatch, making it difficult for workers to commute to job locations Segregation in South African Towns and Cities Readings: Crankshaw, O. 2008. Race, Space and the Post-Fordist Spatial Order of Johannesburg. Urban Studies, 45:1692-1711. Rospabe, S. & Selod, H. 2006. Does city structure cause unemployment? The case of Cape Town. (In Bhorat, H. & Kanbur, R. Poverty and policy in post-apartheid South Africa, HSRC Press, pp. 262-287 These readings explore segregation in South African towns and cities, specifically in Johannesburg and Cape Town. Crankshaw (2008) examines the spatial order of Johannesburg, arguing that: 1. Post-Fordist economic restructuring has led to a fragmented and polarized city. 2. Racial segregation persists, with whites dominating the affluent northern suburbs. 3. The city's spatial structure perpetuates inequality and social exclusion. Rospabe and Selod (2006) investigate the relationship between city structure and unemployment in Cape Town, finding that: 1. Spatial segregation contributes to unemployment, particularly among Africans and Coloureds. 2. Limited access to job opportunities, education, and healthcare perpetuates poverty. 3. Urban planning and policy must address these spatial inequalities to reduce unemployment. Both articles highlight the enduring legacy of apartheid spatial planning, which perpetuates racial and economic segregation in South African cities. They emphasize the need for urban policies that address spatial inequalities and promote inclusive and integrated cities.