Sociology Of Education PDF

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION CUSTOM PUBLICATION Thokozani Mathebula Peggy Siyakwazi Sipho Vilakazi OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS SOUTH AFRICA Contents Contributors...

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION CUSTOM PUBLICATION Thokozani Mathebula Peggy Siyakwazi Sipho Vilakazi OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS SOUTH AFRICA Contents Contributors iv Chapter 1 Theories in sociology of education vi 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Key concepts 2 1.3 Functionalism 6 1.4 Conflict theory 12 1.5 Symbolic interactionism 19 Summary 23 References 24 Chapter 2 Practices in sociology of education: Social institutions, ecology and the role of the school in society 27 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 Social institutions 29 2.3 Ecology of the school 34 2.4 Role of the school in society 38 Summary 48 References 49 Chapter 3 Citizenship education 51 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Ancient and modern concepts of citizenship 53 3.4 Citizenship education in the United Kingdom, the United States of America and South Africa 61 3.5 The future of citizenship education in South African schools: From competitive elitism and 'new patriotism' to cosmopolitanism 68 Summary 73 References 73 Chapter 4 Diversity and culture in education 75 4.1 Introduction 76 4.2 What is diversity? 77 4.3 Who am I? · 79 4.4 What is culture? 82 4.5 Social stratification 84 4.6 Theoretical perspectives in sociology of education 85 4.7 ~~~ ~ 4.8 Race 88 4.9 Class 90 4.10 Access to education 92 Summary 92 References 93 Glossary 95 Index 103 Chapter 1 Theories in sociology of education Velisiwe Gasa and Sue du Plessis STRUCTURE OF CHAPTER - Introduction l ~ l Symbolic interactionism Principles of the theory of symbolic Key concepts interaction ism Sociology Assumptions about the theory of Education symbolic interactionism Sociology of education The theory of symbolic interactionism Functions of sociology of education and families " - The theory of symbolic interaction ism 1 applied to society Divisions within the theory of symbolic Functionalism interaction ism Durkheim, Parsons and functionalism Assumptions about the theory of - f! functionalism 1: Critique of functionalism J ··~ Conflict theory Marx, Weber, Mills and conflict theory Conflict theory and families Conflict theory applied to society Assumptions about conflict theory Propositions of the proponents of conflict theory Critique of conflict theory l LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you have worked through this chapter, you should be able to: discuss the nature and extent of the sociology of education paradigm and how ideolo- gies are shaping global society analyse function?lism, conflict theory (Marxism) and symbolic interactionism criti- cally as theoretical frameworks in the context of sociology of education consider how these three theoretical frameworks provide differentiated interpreta- tions and are applied in the context of the family, school and society. GLOSSARY assimilation assumption bourgeoisie class conflict deviance functionalism ideology Marxism (conflict theory) meritocracy patriarchy pragmatism proletariat school of thought social capital social class social conflict social consensus social control social order social patterns social structure solidarity symbolic interactionism 1. 1 INTRODUCTION All educational processes and the social development of all individuals are affected by social institutions and the experiences of individuals within these institutions. This describes the field of study of sociology of education. This field of specialisation can be classified as a philosophical as well as a sociological concept, denoting ideologies, curricula and pedagogical techniques of the inculcation and management of knowledge as well as the social reproduction of personalities and cultures. It is concerned with the relationships, activities and reactions of teachers and learners in the classroom. It emphasises sociological problems in the realm of education (Hallinan, 2000: 65-84). 2 In addition, various researchers in the field have developed separate focus points z on different aspects of the functioning of education in the societal context, including 0 ~ 0 economic aspects of education (for example, how economic forces shape school :J practices, and how schools determine individual productivity and earnings) as well as 0 w related issues of socialisation, allocation and legitimisation. u. 0 The purpose of this chapter is to review three of the main theories embedded in >- (!) 0 sociology of education: functionalism, conflict theory (Marxism) and the theory of...J 0 symbolic interactionism. These theories, perspectives or schools of thought offer soci- u ologists theoretical paradigms to use in explaining how society influences people and 0 en vice versa. Each perspective or school of thought uniquely conceptualises society, social forces, social patterns, social control and human behaviour. We begin by discussing and defining three key concepts in the field. In addition, we examine the functions of sociology of education in order to endure the reader's understanding of these basic concepts before we proceed. 1.2 KEY CONCEPTS Sociology of education makes use of scientific theory and research to provide impor- tant insights into the ways in which schools affect individuals and groups. We begin by clarifying three basic concepts: sociology, educat.i on and sociology of education. 1.2.1 Sociology The term 'sociology' was first used by French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in 1843. During a systematic restructuring of the methods and parameters of his subject, it became obvious to him that the name 'sociology' was more appropriate than 'social physics', which was the term used previously. Comte was the first person to recognise the need for a distinct science of human society. He contributed significantly to social reform by studying the social laws and dynamics that regulate and control relations and actions between people and social institutions, such as the family, the school, and economic and political systems in society. Comte is thus regarded as the father of sociology (Mondal, 2015; Robinson, 1987: 7). The field was further developed and established by Western intellectuals such as Karl.Marx (1818-1884), Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), Max Weber (1864-1920), Talcott Parsons (1902-1970) and Alfred Schutz (1889-1973). The word 'sociology' is a combination of the Latin word socius, meaning 'companion', and the Greek word logos, meaning 'the study of'. Thus, sociology is the study of companionship or social relations. In other words, it is the study of the origin, devel- opment, organisation and functioning of human social behaviours that are affected by social interactions (Wailer, 2015; Gosling & Taylor, 2011 : 16-17). The concept of sociology can be defined as the study of human behaviours as they are affected by social interactions amongst groups, organisations, societies and the world. These social interactions may involve two people or thousands, suggesting that people, communities, society and the world interact for the benefit of all. In interactions, the parties involved form systems for social interactions. Researchers in the field have formulated specific guidelines to predict interactive behavioural patterns of people towards each other (Gosling & Taylor, 2011: 16-18).  3 Sociology also involves the study of social factors, which are said to be 'ideas, feel- ings and ways of behaving' (Durkheim, 1982: 51). These social factors, which persist z 0 over time, are imposed upon all people who are born into a society. Durkheim empha- ~ 0 sises that sociology is a study of systems that should b~ investigated as a wbok and :J 0 cannot be comprehended by examining the individual parts in isolation. According to w u. him, 'ideas, values and beliefs can be found throughout a society and often persist for 0 >- ~ long periods of time' (Durkheim, 1982: 51). This suggests that an individual born into 0 _J a society can die, but the system will continue operating. 0 0 0 If) z 1.2.2 Education If) '!! (l: The word 'education' has its origins in the Latin word educere, which means 'to bring_ 0 w out that_which is within'. It is particularly concerned with eliciting the human values I I- that are latent in every human being and must be drawn ~ut. Education can be seen as 0: the act or process of imparting or ac;quiring general knowledge, developing the powers liJ I- of reasoning and judgment, and preparing individuals intellectually for mature life Q_ - (!) 0 understanding of the relationship between educational institutions and society, both at...J 0 the micro and the macro levels (Saha, 2008: 300): u 0 (/) At a micro level, researchers seek to identify how variation in school practices, for example, different teaching methods, leads to differences in student performance. At a macro level, sociologists work to identify how various social forces, such as politics, economics and culture, create variation in schools as organisations. The formal study of sociology of education as a field began with the work of Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. Along with other sociologists such as Talcott Parsons, Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman and John Meyer, Durkheim and Weber developed the theo- retical framework for the discipline as a whole, and also focused directly on and wrote about the role of education in society. Durkheim considered education to be essentially social in character and in its functions. He believed that the theory of education relates more clearly to sociology than to any other science (cf Section 1.3.1 for more detail on Durkheim and Parsons).. What is peculiar about sociology of education is that ultimately it approaches education at a 'level of abstraction that is essentially concerned with the social institu- tions of education from peer groups to classes and schools, to the system of education addressing institutional compositions, structures, procedures, ideologies and functions, not negating the interrelationships amongst education and other societal institutions, such as economic, political and governmental bodies' (Reid, 1986: 22-23). Despite criticism that sociology of education affects the autonomy of the ~cience of education by labelling education as nothing more than an extension of sociology and aspires to prescribe to educators on the content that is taught as well as educative prac- tices, Reid (1986: 24-25) views the subject matter of sociology of education as providing both a unique picture and a questioning analysis of education. Its prirrie contribution is its singular insistence on viewing schools and education as pre-eminently social. 1.2.4 Functions of sociology of education From a general point of view, the acquisition of knowledge and the development of the personality of an individual are presumed to be the main function of education. It is assumed that these functions occur without effort. However, from a sociological point of departure, education also has the following functions (Wailer, 2015:1-9; Barkan, 2002:1-3): the assimilation and the transmission of culture and traditions the development of new social patterns the activation of constructive and creative forces. These functions are discussed in more detail below.  5 1.2.4.1 Assimilation and the transmission of culture and traditions The assimilation and the transmission of culture and traditions must be done consciously z 0 and selectively. The inclusion of specific aspects of culture and tradition in the body ~ 0 of knowledge that is to be taught should depend on their value and acceptability in ::J 0 UJ today's democratic social set-up. For example, if it is assumed that all religions are the lL same, meaning that all religions are simply paths to God, the moral responsibility of 0 )- members of society is emphasised (Prathapan, 2014). 0 0...J At the same time, according to Ballantine and Hammack (2012), education should Q 0 assist with the acquisition of the following: 0 ffl clear moral principles and values ?; ffl the ability to examine one's own thoughts and feelings UJ 0:: an awareness of one's proficiencies and goals 0 UJ self-esteem and a strong belief in one's ability to achieve goals I f- the ability to think creatively 0:: an appreciation of culture, including art, music and the humanities UJ I- the development of a sense of well-being (in other words, mental and physical health) Q...: I respect for others 0 respect for the physical environment the capacity to live a fulfilling life. 1.2.4.2 Development of new social patterns In today's rapidly changing world, the development of technology and mass media has resulted in the formation of new social patterns. Consequently, according to Znaniecki (1951 : 69-86), whilst traditional values must be preserved, new values and social patterns should be developed in order to achieve the following aims: citizens who are grounded in their own cultures, but remain open to other cultures the cultivation of a global mind-set knowledge that is sufficiently advanced to allow economic development that manages both the physical and the human environment responsibly to take place the formation of citizens who are aware of their social responsibility the development of citizens who can assess the information that is available to them and use it to make predictions for the future the provision of training in problem-solving to people who are able to look for and evaluate alternative solutions. 1.2.4.3 Activation of constructive and creative forces An important function of education is to provide a qualified and creative workforce made up of people who are able to adapt to new technologies and participate in the 'intelligence revolution' that is the driving force behind most of the world's econo- mies. According to Ballantine and Hammack (2012), education should achieve the following: ensure that learners are able to make a living by giving them adequate vocational education develop the mental and physical skills of learners (including motor, thinking, communication and social skills) produce adaptable people who can cope with changes in their social environment 6 create individuals who are able to make a contribution to the development of their z society 0 ~ produce citizens who understand and appreciate democracy, and live according to 0 :J 0 its principles w u. create people who make good use of leisure time 0 teach students to adapt to change, prepare for change or initiate change in society >- 0 develop individuals who are open to others by teaching them mutual understanding 0...J Q and the value of peace 0 0 ({) promote knowledge of socially acceptable moral practices and ethical standards develop people who have an understanding of human relations and motivations. As stated earlier, some sociologists approach their research at a micro level (that is, they aim to identify how variations in school practices affect student performances), while others adopt a macro approach (in other words, they seek to understand the effect of social forces on education). This means that they look at the same phenomena in different ways. The micro approach is dominated by the theory of symbolic interac- tionism, whereas the macro approach is dominated by functionalism and conflict theory. These three perspectives (functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism) are discussed below. 1.3 FUNCTIONALISM '· One of the major theoretical approaches in sociology of education is the function- alist perspective, also called structural functionalism. Arguably, the most important approaches within sociology of education are those derived from the writings of two eminent theorists, Durkheim and Parsons. Structural functionalism (or functionalism) dominated sociological thinking about education until the late 1960s or early 1970s. Apart from a description of functionalism in general, the most salient contributions made by the aforementioned functionalists of sociology of education as well as some points of criticism of this approach will be dealt with in this section. The theory of functionalism is grounded in the natural and physical sciences, specifi- cally the theory of homeostasis, which is found in the living systems theory. This theory_ focuses on the functional contribution that society's parts or sub-systems (for example, institutions) make to each other and to the maintenance of these parts for the sake of the stability and equilibrium of the society as a whole. However, society is more than the sum of its parts and the parts are interdependent on each other. These parts, which primarily represent the institutions of society, are structured to fulfil different needs, each of which has particular consequences for the form and shape of society (Crossman, 2012; Ballantine, 2001 : 2-19). The functionalist approach or perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists during the 1940s and 1950s. They focused on discovering the functions of human behaviour, while European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner workings of social order. American functionalist sociologist Robert Merton classified human functions into two types: manifest functions and latent func- tions. These functions, which are essentially relative and not absolute, consist of the following (Haralambos et al, 2004: 843):  7 Manifest functions are intentional and obvious. For example, the manifest function of attending a church, mosque, temple or synagogue ·is to worship as part of a reli- z 0 gious community, thus conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next generation. ~ u Latent functions are unintentional and not obvious. For example, schools not only :::J 0 educate young peqple, but they also provide mass entertainment. Latent functions L1J u. may help members learn to distinguish personal values from institutional values. 0 >- (.') 0...J According to Durkheim, the latent role of education constitutes the socialisation of 0 people into society's mainstream. Through this 'moral education', as he called it, people u 0 C/) from diverse backgrounds are brought together into a more cohesive social structure. z Functionalists also point to other latent roles of education, such as the transmission C/) L1J lr of core values and social control. For example, in the American education system, the 0 L1J core values that are taught support the political and economic systems that originally I.... fuelled education. Thus, American children are rewarded for adhering to schedules, lr following directions, meeting deadlines and obeying authority (cf Chapter 2). UJ.... Functionalism has two levels of focus. At the micro-level focus of functionalism, a. - (!) 0 These works focus on how social order is possible and how society can remain stable...J 0 in spite of the many influences that could potentially destabilise social order. u 0 Ul The question that occupied Durkheim throughout his career concerned how we can ensure the kind of moral regulation and social integration that is appropriate for a modern society. It is necessary to know more about Durkheim's life and the world in which he lived to understand why this issue troubled him so greatly. He was born in 1858, almost seventy years after the French Revolution. The guiding theme of the French Revolution was individual freedom, in contrast with the rapidly growing nation- alism and extreme conservatism that began developing prior to the First World War, which ended in 1918. The war raised nationalist feelings to a fever pitch. In a climate of virulent nationalism, there was no space for individualism to question the wisdom of government policies (Gelderblom et al., 2012: 64-65). It is helpful to view Durkheim's theory against the backdrop of the capitalist indus- trialisation experienced by France at that time. His theory was an attempt to defend the rights of the individual as expressed in the ideals that underpinned the French Revolution. However, Durkheim's theory also warned against the dangers of unchecked individualism, where the rights of the individual might outweigh the collective interests of society (Blackledge & Hunt, 1985:10-12). Educational institutions and sub-systems have an important responsibility to help achieve the desired equilibrium between the rights of the individual and the interests of society. Education can be defined as the influence exercised by the adult generation on those who are not yet ready for social life. For the child to live up to the demands of both the political society and the special space that he or she is destined to occupy in society, the child needs development in the physical, intellectual and moral states of his being (Ballantine, 1983: 8-9). Haralambos and Holborn expand on what Durkheim expects education to be. They maintain that education should:... live up to a cer:tain amount of specialisation... One of the functions of education is to prepare people for the particular milieu for which they are destined... Since all are subjected to the school regime, education will build up the necessary consensus for society to continue... Education must provide the norms and values that the child needs. It must also... provide a cognitive framework in terms of which the child can come to under- stand the world and acquire knowledge. Ibis involves creating a stable and structural environment in which these things are clearly defined and where conformity to them is demanded by those in authority. Source: Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M. 1990. Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London : Collins Education, p. 229.  9 Durkheim (1956: 122) states that the person who emerges from the education system is not the person made by nature, but the person whom society wishes him or her z 0 to be and for whom the internal economy calls. Education is social in nature and is a ~ u means to an end. It is not the individual being educated, the teachers or the educa- :J 0 tional admini~trators who define the end product, but society. The primary functions w u. of education are therefore not to develop the abilities and potential of children per se, 0 >- but to develop those abilities and capabilities that society needs. School education is a (!) 0...J social institution and its ideals should be decided by society (Morrish, 1978:31). 0 u 0 ({) 1.3.1.2 Parsons z ({) Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was an American professor of sociology at Harvard w !r University from 1927 to 1973. He was the author of numerous publications, including 0 w Tbe Structure of Social Action (1937), Tbe Social System 0951), Social Structure and I 1- Personality (1964), Tbe System ofModern Societies (1971) and Tbe Structure and Change !r of the Social System (1983). He made a great contribution to the field of sociological w l- theory, particularly through his development of a general 'theory of action'. a. - f- w Does it not take a nation to raise a child? u 0 Ul z 2.2 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS...J 0 0 I There are many different types of social institution. In this section, we will consider five u Ul prominent social institutions: the family, the school, religion, economies and governrnents I w f- or political organisations. Social institutions can be understood as established sub-systems IL 0 that satisfy the basic needs of society, define dominant social values, establish patterns of w...J social behaviour, support society's survival and modify roles for individuals. Each institu- 0 0: tion has different responsibilities that contribute to the overall functioning and stability w I of a society. This helps to decrease chaos and increase structure, thereby enabling each f- 0 institution to fulfil its role of social modification easily (Doda, 2005; Boundless, 2015). z - (.') 0 to ensure that they perform well in society. This is because social institutions have a...J 0 reciprocal impact on each other. If one major social institution undergoes fundamental u w changes, others will be affected as well. Competition also plays a big role among social ui z institutions owing to similarities in their responsibilities and functions. As a result, it 0 f= has been recognised in most societies that some institutions should play a superior :J f- role to others. But regardless of the degree of superiority of an institution, there is no f= Ul z permanency in social institutions as their functions sometimes change (Doda, 2005;...J Boundless, 2015). For example, if a certa!_n institution fails to fulfil a specific need, :! u another institution has to take the lead and fulfil that need. 0 Ul z 0 2.2.1 The family as a social institution ~ u :J 0 Although the family is recognised as a micro unit of any social system, it remains at w IL the centre of social life. It sometimes passes on generational traditions, and provides 0 >- family members with a home, a sense of belonging and anJ_q~ As parents instil (.') 0...J generational tradition~, some parents ensure that the ethnic culture and in-group cohe- Q siveness is maintained in the family. Therefore, children's decisions to maintain their u 0 Ul ethnic culture and in-group cohesiveness are influenced by other members of the ~ family. There are certain legal and cultural rights and responsibilities that members of Ul w a family group are expected to conform to. These are spelt out in formal laws as well u f= u as in informal traditions (Newman, 2009). For example, the Zulu royal family's values - (.') 0 so that their opinions would be considered and respected, and their freedom would...J Q be entrenched in the Constitution. () 0 (/) 0 Before proceeding to the next section, which looks at the ecology of the school, reflect on what you have learnt by answering these questions. 1. If a certain institution fails to fulfil a specific need, what will happen? 2. What does it mean when we say that family is socially constructed? 3. Why are families referred to as both public and private? 4. Is it true that the school expands the social world of learners? Support your answer with examples. 5. Karl Marx said, 'Religion is the "opium of the people" -it masks domination and diverts workers from rebelling against exploitation.' Do you agree with this state- ment? Explain your answer.. 6. After reading the case study on page 34 (Section 2.2.4), which economic system would you consider most suitable to be adopted in Africa: social ism or capitalism? Support your answer with examples. 7. Which type of government rules your country? Explain your answer. 2.3 ECOLOGY OF THE SCHOOL It is important to have a clear understanding of the concept of the school ecology (school climate or environment) and how this concept interconnects all of the various aspects of the school as an agent of socialisation. A healthy school ecology reflects the school's own personality and unique character. It is an extremely powerful force , playing an important role as a positive and/ or negative influence on the school commu- nity, and it is interconnected with the values of the society that it serves. The following distinctive features of a school ecology can be identified (Botha, 2002: 44-45): The school is protected against unreasonable pressure from the community and parents. The principal is a dynamic leader who supports his or her staff while pursuing high academic standards, ensuring that the school's needs are met in terms of national policies. The staff members tend to maintain high standards of conduct and display initiative by also setting high standards for learners. Learners work hard, are highly motivated and treat studious classmates with respect in classrooms with acceptable learner numbers. Resources are available and physical fa4:ilities are well maintained.  35 Teaching aids are available in well-equipped classrooms. Staff morale is high and everyone is proud to be associated with the school. >- f- UJ There is a high involvement by all parties concerned. u 0 (/) ~ A recent model of human development positions the school and its ecology in the --' 0 social system's context by integrating the ecological systems theory developed by 0 I Bronfenbrenne r in 1979 and extrapolating this model to an education setting developed u (/) by Moos in the same year. UJ I f- u. 0 UJ --' 0 t~~acrosystem 0: UJ I f- 0 z - '-'0 --' 0 u UJ - f- A final systems parameter extends the environment into a third dimen- u 0 "' sion. Traditionally in the study of human development, the passage of time (/) ~ was treated as synonymous with chronological age, Since the early 1970s,..J 0 however, an increasing number of investigators have employed research 0 I designs in which time appears not merely as an attribute to the growing u (/) human being, but also as a property of the surrounding environment not "' I f- only over the life course, but across historical time (Baltes & Schaie, 1973; u. 0 Clausen, 1986, Elder, 1974, Elder et al., 1993). A chronosystem encompasses change or consistency over time not only "'..J 0 0:: in the characteristics of the person but also of the environment in which that person lives (for example, changes over the life course in the family "'f- I 0 structure, socio-economic status, employment, place of residence or the z - Cl 0..J Source: Bronfenbrenner, U. 1994. Ecological Models of Human Development. International 0 Encyclopedia of Education, 3(2). Oxford: Elsevier, p. 40. u "' ui z In terms of this model and the five levels that it proposes, Bronfenbrenner places the 0 i= school in the microsystem where the school forms part of the holistic environment of :J f- the ecology of the school. i= (/) z The organisational characteristics of a school's ecology are represented by the..J following features of the structural, functional and built environment (see Figure 2.2): - f- 1. Do you agree with the functionalist view that the school is society's primary instru- w 0 ment for meeting the demands of our modern political, social and economic life? 0 (/) Substantiate your answer. z 2. Why is political socialisation especially important in schooling in South African 0 _j 0 society today? Substantiate your answer. I 0 3. Do schools in South Africa today live up to these processes? Substantiate your (/) w answer. I f- u. 0 w 2.4.1.2 The perspective of conflict theory (Marxism) on schooling in _j 0 a: society w I Conflict (Marxist) theorists view schooling as a social practice that is supported and f- 0 utilised by those in power to maintain their dominance in the social order. They see z - Cl 0 _j Q 2.4.1.2.1 Class consciousness, false consciousness and hegemony u 0 (/) Class consciousness is an awareness of membership in a group as defined by economic position. The individuals in a particular social class become aware that they share common interests and a common social situation. These individuals unite to pursue their shared interests. Sometimes a group's consCiousness regarding its class gives rise to a class struggle, for example, union-organising activity. This is because people who recognise and articulate their class position are more likely to promote their class interests. Class consciousness was formed in part by public schools and universities, which exposed students from one class to students from other classes (the working, middle or upper class). It is, therefore, likely that education gives knowledge and power to some of these classes to maintain control over the political system. For example, the upper class deprives the working class and the middle class of their voice in the political process (Borland, 2008). Karl Marx viewed class consciousness as crucial because members of a social class become actively aware of themselves as a class. When members of a social class lack this awareness, it leads to a distorted perception of the reality of a class and its conse- quences. This is called false consciousness. False consciousness is any belief or view that prevents a person from being able to understand the true nature of a sitt,~ation. It is also defined as a person's inability to see where his or her best interest lies. Marx referred to the workers' acceptance of ideologies that ran counter to their interests as false consciousness. This means that the development of class consciousness may be blocked by members of a class who accept the ideology of the dominant class (Feinberg & Soltis, 2004). True consciousness of a certain class (for example, a subordinate class) is impeded by the acceptance by a person from that class of the ideologies and values of the domi- nant class. When the dominant class succeeds in establishing its own mode of thinking amongst most members of the subordinate class, it is said to have established hegemony over the subordinate class. Hegemony means having influence and authority over others. This influence is expressed through ideologies, beliefs, perceptions, behaviour and social structures. The institutions of civil society (for example, schooling, the media and forms of popular culture such as music, art, film, television and radio) play a role in establishing hegemony. Thus, social orders are founded and reproduced within certain institutions. This is where the dominant class sometimes exerts power and domina- tion over the subordinate class in order to maintain social boundaries and rules. Other institutions (such as religious, educational, economic and political institutions as well as the institution of the family) also play in favour of the dominant class because they induce the subordinate class to consent to the dominant order. This means that some institutions are responsible for establishing the hegemony or ideological dominance of a distinctive type of social order (Feinberg & Soltis, 2004).  45 >- 1- 1. Do you agree that schools play a role in establishing hegemony? Substantiate your w answer. u 0 ({) 2. Explain what class consciousness entails. ~ 3. Do you think that class consciousness is important in relation to schooling in South..) 0 0 Africa? Substantiate your answer. I u ({) w I 2.4.1.2.2 Neo-Marxism and education 1- u. Neo-Marxism is an approach that was developed to amend or extend Marxism and 0 w..) Marxist theory during the twentieth century. It refers to any theory that uses Marxism 0 (l: as a base from which to address historical problems. Its advocacy is the incorporation w I of various elements from other intellectual traditions in order to explain questions that 1- 0 were not explained in the works of Marx. This means that neo-Marxists attempt to fill z - (!) 0 traditional Marxist thought and attempt to bring it into modern political systems. They..) 0 maintain that the division between the powerful and the powerless is propagated by u w certain social institutions, such as schools and churches (Taylor, 1974; Au, 2006). ui z 0 f= 2.4.1.2.3 Neo-Marxist interpretation of schooling in a capitalist society ::J I- Neo-Marxists see schools as playing a vital role in legitimising the inequalities in f= ({) z society. They regard schools as being responsible for transmitting knowledge in..) - (!) 0 including trends and debates on the subject...J 0 understand the responsibilities of citizenship in local, national and international con- u 0 If) texts understand the links between this chapter and certain areas in Chapters 9 and 10 in this textbook. GLOSSARY citizenship cosmopolitanism education elitism patriotism 3. 1 INTRODUCTION Ancient and modem conceptions of citizenship encourage active participation, whether concerned with local, national or international affairs. In South Africa's constitutional democracy, the term 'citizenship' reflects two distinct formulations : citizenship as a legal status (to be a citizen) and citizenship as a practice (to act as a citizen). International literature on citizenship education supports the claim that learning for democratic citi- zenship is not limited to the formal school curriculum. It also requires active community engagement, thus it transcends a person's sense of 'localism' or affinity to his or her nation state. The goals of citizenship education in South Africa would be better served by cosmopolitan ideals, that is, preparing South African learners to act at a local , national and global scale. This chapter aims to introduce the reader to citizenship education as a craft (caught), not only a programme (taught). (In other words, citizenship requires a range of forms of learning both 'inside' and 'outside' schools). It begins with the definition of the concept 'citizenship' and the development of theories of citizenship since its origins in the Greek city-state of Athens. The chapter gives consideration to British and American studies on citizenship education that support the claim that learning democratic citizenship is not limited to the formal school curriculum, but also requires active community engage- ment. At the same time, it traces the stages or phases of South African citizenship. In addition, it examines citizenship education and curriculum development in post-apart- heid South African schools. The chapter concludes by presenting a cosmopolitan view of citizenship and citizenship education that seeks-to prepare South African learners to act locally, but think globally. 54 ~ oo·o o· o·o..-.. 0 roots in 'the English law of citizenship and nationality that originated in the common UJ Q. law concept of allegiance' (Schmidt, 1993: 212). As a consequence of this British-South I en African relationship, when the Boer republics (Transvaal and Orange Free State) and the zUJ N British colonies (Cape Colony and Natal) formed the South African Union government i= 0 in 1910, there were no South African citizens, only British subjects and Union nationals. The beginning of disparate 'South African citizenship' under the Union government "'a: UJ came with the Natives Land Act (Act No. 26 of 1913), which set up reserves (later f- a. ~ known as 'homelands') for Black people (see Section 2.2.5). The South African govern- :r u ment gave effect to the colonial provisions of the Land Act of 1913 by introducing the Natives Urban Areas Act (Act No. 20 of 1923). By separating native locations from towns administratively, the act segregated Black and White people socially (they had been separated territorially earlier, purportedly on hygienic grounds). According to the act, urban local authorities were given powers to 'define, set apart and lay out one or more areas of land for the occupation, residence and other reasonable requirements of natives, either as extensions of any area already set apart for that purpose or as separate areas' (Union of South Africa, 1923: 142). In an unprecedented move, the South Af~ican Citizenship Act (Act No. 44 of 1949) was essentially substituted for that of Union nationality. The act, which repealed the existing statutes dealing with British subjects and lJnion nationals, read as follows : Any reference in any law to a Union national or to Union nationality shall be deemed to be a reference to a South African citizen or to South African citizenship, as the case may be, and any reference to a British subject shall be deemed to be a reference to a South African, a citizen of a Commonwealth country or a citizen of the Republic ofIreland, and any rtference to natural-born British subjects shall be deemed to be a reference to persons who by virtue of birth or descent are South African citizens or citizens of any Commonwealth country or of the Republic of Ireland, or who have at any time been such citizens and are not aliens. Source: Union of South Africa. 1949. South African Citizenship Act. Cape Town : Government Printers, p. 448. The South African Citizenship Act (1949) was ground-breaking in three ways: It created the new status of South African citizenship, essentially substituting the status for that of Union nationality. The act highlighted the Union's long struggle to give substance to the original Hertzog motto of 'South Africa First' and to free the country from all the confines of its colonial past. Unsurprisingly, the act ushered in a seemingly common albeit unequal South African society. While Black South Africans were denied full citizenship, the Nationalists espoused a form of apartheid race-based citizenship. According to this concept of citizenship, 58 the South African population was classified into different race groups. The PQQula.ti_on z Registration Act (Act No. 30 of 1950) classified South African citizens into four different 0 ~ u race groups: Europeans (Whites), Coloureds, Indians and Africans (Blacks). In 1959, ::> 0 Prime Minister Verwoerd, who was in power between 1958 and 1966, got Parliament w u. to agree to the Promotion of ,Bantu Self-Government Act (Act No. 45 of 1959), which 0 >- provided for the establishment of ten independent or autonomous Black states. As a (!) 0 point of departure, the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act (Act No. 26 of 1970) attested...J Q to the National Party's commitment to race- and ethnicity-based notions of citizenship. u 0 (/) 0. l', :.i :~tif~~(~:~:E~~~:;-~~~~:~;;;;~~;;;;e~;ou~~~;::~i~~~;:;;;;~;,:~: - skei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei (TBVC). Four were 'self-governing': Lebowa , QwaQwa, KwaZulu and Gazankulu. The last two were still in the formative process: Kangwane and Kwandebele. Effectively, Africans had no civic, political or social citi- ~ zenship rights, save in the Bantustan states. In practice, homeland citizenship meant i that all of the Bantu in the Republic of South Africa, whether domiciled in established ! African reserves or not, were considered to be citizens of the Black areas for their ' 1 ethnic groups and to have citizenship rights there. In order to foster homeland ethnic- : based citizenship, the National Party's strategy took two forms: ~ an enforced division of the Bantu along ethnic lines ~ an imposed separation between urban (town) residents and rural (countryside) :: residents. ::~..--~._~..~~....-NW~--~~~~~~~..~ As far as citizens' garticipatiof,l was concerned, the apartheid race-based and homeland ethnicity-based citizenship phases can be summarised in the following way: Blacks were not really citizens since they did not exercise full civil, social or political rights in 'White' South African government affairs. In order to arm itself against the accusation of injustice, the South African apartheid government resorted to the device of giving Black citizenship (that is civil, political and social rights) in the homelands. In ~ 0 UJ tion of a large section of the population: slaves, children, women and foreigners. This a. ancient concept of citizenship, as an idea and a practice, has gone through a meta- I (/) morphosis, having been reformed,_r.ethought and reinvented since the mid-twentieth z UJ I N century. Similarly, the concept of South African citizenship has undergone a transition i= from colonialism via apartheid to democracy. Global trends in liberal democracies u tend similarly towards an active, participatory, community-based form of citizenship "'a: education. In post-apartheid citizenship education policy, with the restoration of equal ,_UJ a. -f- 1995: 22). iii As a starting point, consider this activity, which encourages you to reflect on the lr w influence of society on our lives. > 0 "' lr w f- a. mas (1990: 107-117): 'Managing diversity does not mean controlling or contaii1iogd~ersity, it means enabling every member... to perform to his or her potential.' However, it would seem that for many educators and communities, diversity is a problem. When new groups of students arrive in schools, there is often racial conflict as well as the expression of various kinds of bias and intolerance. Teachers and learners in the receiving school view the.newcomers as a threat, and therefore react with hostility and resentment. 78 According to Noguera, instead of reacting with fear and insecurity, it is possible to · Z devise ways to respond that allow people to reap the benefits of pluralism. Noguera 0 ~ 0 0999: 2) goes on to suggest that 'schools will undoubtedly continue to serve as the :::J 0 initial meeting place for different cultures, and it will be very important that educators UJ lL find ways to make those encounters positive experiences for children, parents and 0 teachers.' >- Cl 0 There are numerous sources of diversity. In this chapter, we consider identity, _j Q gender, race, class, access to education and culture. Aspects of these sources of diver- 0 0 (f) sity are presented in Table 4.1 to give you a sense of what you will be studying in this chapter. Table 4.1 Sources of diversity Who am I? Is gender What is Is class What is Is culture cu lturally the socia l something access to static? c reated? construction that we education of race? achieve? dependent upon? Is it a How do How is How socia l fact? we deal class much do with racial related you know integration to the about your in schools? means of culture? production? How do How do we we make integrate teaching different more classes gender in ou r sensitive? schools? It is important to understand that diversity arises from race, class, gender and culture. In order to understand human behaviour in society, we must unde rstand the basis of diversity. However, before proceeding with an examination of this topic, we present a brief introduction to some of the perspectives in sociology of education.  79 4.3 WHO AM I? Socialisation is a process that enables us to answer questions about our identities. Our z 0 social identities are guided by factors such as gender, race, class, religion and disabili- ~ 0 ties. The case study that follows introduces the nature-nurture debate related to the ::J 0 formation of identity. w z w ll: Case study ::J ~ ::J Feral children 0 0 (Feral children are children who are raised in the absence of human contact.) z q: In 1970, a thirteen-year-old girl called Genie was taken to the Los Angeles County >- I: Welfare Office by her mother. Although thirteen, she looked like a six-year-old child. (/) ll: She weighed 27 kg and she was just 1,3 m tall. She was severely underweight and w > suffered from incontinence. She was unable to stand up straight. it turned out that 0 Genie had been kept in total isolation for her entire life. Her father beat her regu-. ll: w larly if he found her making any sound. He had deprived her of toys, with two rain- f- a. q: coats being her only play items. Genie's mother, who was blind , was also abused by I () Genie's father. Source: Adapted from Anderson, M.L. & Taylor, H.F. 2009. Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont, California: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 64. Question 1. What does this case study tell you about the consequences of life without a social context? What would human beings be like Without society? The case study reveals that while genes may provide us with skin, bones and a brain, humans only become social beings by learning the values, norms and roles that culture bestows upon people. Sociologists refer to this as the process of socialisation. Who we are (in other words, our identities) is shaped by inputs such as family, media , peers, religion, sports and schools. In the case study above, the father gave the child restricted access to a television guide. She was not allowed to play with toys or friends. These restrictions meant that she was deprived of becoming a social being. The answer to the question 'Who am I?' depends to a large extent on who the world around a person says that he or she is. Identity refers to the way in which a person defines him- or herself. In Genie's case, she was unable to talk because she was deprived of access to family, friends, school and the media. As a result, she was not in a position to define who she was. Identity is the basis of socialisation, which is the process through which people learn the expectations of society. Identity is generally given by others because we come to see ourselves as others see us. Our socialisation depends on factors such as race, class and gender (amongst other factors). As mentioned earlier, it is important to get a sense of who we are as individuals if we are to succeed in embracing and celebrating our diversity. You can begin to do this by completing the exercise on social identitius that follows. 80 z 0 0 ~ 0 ::> 0 w lL 0 >- t!J 0 _j Q 0 0 Ul Sex: Male/Female Race: I think about my race: Africa n/1 nd ian/Colored/ White/Other First. language: I think about the Engl ish/isiZ ul u/Afri kaa ns/ language I speak: isiXhosa and so on Social class: I think about the Working class/Middle class/ social class to which.! Upper class/Other belong: Religious group: I am aware of my Muslim/Christian/Traditional religion: African/Jew/H ind u/Other Physical ability: I am aware of this Able-bodied/Disabled aspect of my life: Sexual orientation: I am aware of my Gay/Lesbian/Heterosexual/ sexual orientation: B isexua !/Other 2. In the table above, you explored and examined your social identities. Refer back to your answers, and identify one group that is a dominant (agent) group and one group that is a subordinated (target) group. (A dominant social group is one that you think of every day or often and a subordinate group is one that you think of seldom or never.) Then res pond to the questions below, engaging honestly and openly with them. a. When was the first time you became aware of being a member of a specific social group? b. When was the first time you were aware that this social group membership affected.,the way in which you were treated in society? c. Was there ever a time you did not want to be a member of a specific social group (either agent or target)? >>  81 >> z 0 d. Give a brief account of the first time you became aware that membership of a ~ 0 particular social group gave you access to privileges that others did not enjoy ::J 0 UJ ,(and identify what social group you are referring to). z e. Give a brief account of the first time you became aware that membership of UJ ll: ::J a particular social group brought you disadvantages (and identify the social ~ group you are referring to). ::J 0 f. Describe a time when you recall acting in an oppressive way as a member of 0 z - g. Can you recall supporting or going along with some oppressive behaviour that t: (/) ll: was directed at a member of your target social group? UJ > h. Describe a time when you took some action against any form of oppression. 0 i. Describe a time you can remember feeling proud because of your social group.. ll: membership (either agent or target). "' I- Q. j. Are there any other important incidents related to your social group member- - 1- Ui a:: Work for wages I ~ Vulnerable to displacement by machines or cheap labour t UJ > 0... Figure 4.1 Kart Marx's view of stratification in society a: UJ I- n. q: I l) 1. Consider your own schooling. How many of the statements in the bulleted list above would you say apply to your schooling experience? Would you agree that the education system in South Africa a.chieves these objectives through the hid- den curriculum? The functionalist, on the other hand, sees inequality in class as necessary, as it moti- vates people t fill functionally important positions. According to Davis and Moore (1945: 242-247),;functionalists believe that the roles filled by the upper classes (govern- ance.and management) are essential to the smooth running of society and that the people who perform these roles are therefore entitled to a reward that is proportionate to their contribution. As far as class in the South African education system is concerned, Soudien says that the way in which integration manifests itself in terms of class is less obvious than it is in the case of race. He writes that 'what one can say, however, is that a distinct realignment of socio-economic groups is taking place in the schools, with a large scale exodus of middle-class black parents and their children out of the former Department of Education and TraiJ;ling and House of Delegates and House of Representative systems into the former white system' (Soudien & Sayed, 2009: 34). It was mentioned earlier that Bowles and Gintis were of the view that the education system serves the objectives of capitalist societies. Research on class in South African schools shows that many things are happening in wealthy schools that conspire to keep the poor child out. According to Sekete et al. (2001 : 67), the move from township schools has a lot to do with a search for better education. However, it also has to do with costs. In a study conducted by Soudien and Sayed (2009: 39), it was found that finances proved to be either exclusionary or inhibitory. 92 4. 10 ACCESS TO EDUCATION z According to functionalists, the purpose of education is to provide book knowledge, 0 ~ culture (such as moral values and ethics) and occupational training. While functionalists u :J 0 see education as being unifying and stabilising influences on society, conflict theorists UJ u. emphasise the des~ructive and disruptive aspects of education. Conflict theorists are 0 concerned with the competition amongst groups for power, income and social status. >- CJ Access to education is largely dependent upon race, class and gender. Race, class 0...J Q and gender protect the upper classes from moving downwards socially and prevent u 0 (/) the lower classes from acquiring upward social mobility. However, it is important to be mindful of the policy expressed in the White Paper on Education and Training, which is the pursuit of the reconstruction of the education system on the basis of the values of equality, non-sexism, non-racism and redress. One of the priority areas of this white paper is access to schooling. Here too, however, it is necessary to take cognisance of Fataar's warning that 'prioritising educational access over quality runs the high risk of reproducing the racial inequalities that were spawned in the apartheid era' (Kallaway et al., 1997: 538). SUMMARY It is crucial for future teachers to have an understanding of issues of diversity, espe- cially in a diverse society such as South Africa. This chapter has introduced some of the important issues on identity, race, class and gender from the sociological perspec- tives of functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic inte+actionism. Reference has been made to research in the education system around the issues of race, class and gender. Access to schooling, especially in South Africa, remains a priority. Irrespective of which lense is used to analyse the issues of race, class and gender, no person can be denied access to education. Questions 1. In this chapter, a discussion of gender, race and class from the different sociologi- cal perspectives of functionalism , conflict theory and symbolic interactionism as well as their educational implications has been presented. Summarise the views of these three perspectives on gender, race and class. Use the table below to present your summary. Functionalism Conflict theory Symbolic interactionism Educational implications >> 92 4. 10 ACCESS TO EDUCATION z According to functionalists, the purpose of education is to provide book knowledge, 0 ~ (.) culture (such as moral values and ethics) and occupational training. While functionalists :J 0 see education as being unifying and stabilising influences on society, conflict theorists UJ u. emphasise the des~ructive and disruptive aspects of education. Conflict theorists are 0 concerned with the competition amongst groups for power, income and social status. >- CJ Access to education is largely dependent upon race, class and gender. Race, class 0...J Q and gender protect the upper classes from moving downwards socially and prevent (.) 0 (/) the lower classes from acquiring upward social mobility. However, it is important to be mindful of the policy expressed in the White Paper on Education and Training, which is the pursuit of the reconstruction of the education system on the basis of the values of equality, non-sexism, non-racism and redress. One of the priority areas of this white paper is access to schooling. Here too, however, it is necessary to take cognisance of Fataar's warning that 'prioritising educational access over quality runs the high risk of reproducing the racial inequalities that were spawned in the apartheid era' (Kallaway et al., 1997: 538). SUMMARY It is crucial for future teachers to have an understanding of issues of diversity, espe- cially in a diverse society such as South Africa. This chapter has introduced some of the important issues on identity, race, class and gender from the sociological perspec- tives of functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic int~ctionism. Reference has been made to research in the education system around the issues of race, class and gender. Access to schooling, especially in South Africa, remains a priority. Irrespective of which lense is used to analyse the issues of race, class and gender, no person can be denied access to education. Questions 1. In this chapter, a discussion of gender, race and class from the different sociologi- ca l perspectives of functionalism , con flict theory and symbolic interactionism as well as their educational implications has been