Socialization and Social Stratification PDF

SOC 1100 The Study of Society Socialization and Social Interaction; Assigned Readings 1. Ritzer, George. (2018), Introduction to Sociology Chapters 5, Pgs. 145-175. 2. Ballantine, Jeannne...

SOC 1100 The Study of Society Socialization and Social Interaction; Assigned Readings 1. Ritzer, George. (2018), Introduction to Sociology Chapters 5, Pgs. 145-175. 2. Ballantine, Jeannne H. and et al (2016). Our Social World : Introduction to Sociology. Chapter 4, Pgs. 92-120. Andrew Hicks Department of Sociology Faculty of Social Sciences University of Guyana Introduction  Sociologists, in general, are interested in the patterns of behaviour and attitudes that emerge throughout the life course, from infancy to old age.  These patterns are part of the lifelong process of socialization in which people learn the attitudes, values, and behaviours appropriate for members of a particular culture.  This occurs through human interaction.  Socialization helps us discover how to behave “properly” and what to expect from others if we follow (or challenge) society's norms and values  Self-Image Socialization also helps shape our self-image. Experiences help to shape our personalities. Personality is a person's typical patterns of attitudes, needs, characteristics, and behavior. The question always remains: How much of a person's personality is shaped by culture as opposed to inborn traits?  Nurture Nurture is an important part of shaping personality. Children given minimal attention as children may become fearful of human contact and prone to unpredictable antisocial behavior. Experiments are preformed on primates, testing the effect of isolation on behavior. Isolated monkeys were fearful and easily frightened, did not mate, and when artificially impregnated, became abusive parents. Another set of monkeys were given “artificial mothers”, which consisted of two sets of “mothers”. One was made of wire, but had food. The other was merely a piece of cloth. All of the monkeys took food from the wire mother, and spent most of their time clinging to the cloth mother. Nature  Both genetic factors and socialization experiences are influential in human development.  Certain factors seem to be hereditary and others seem to be learned or gained through social contact.  A pair of identical twins were separated at birth and raised in households where they were taught completely different ideals. However, when they reunited, they learned that they had a lot in common. They also learned that there were differences, and most of those came about based upon the way they were raised. These twins similarities and differences were the result of nature and nurture, respectively.  The Self The self emerges as we interact with others. The self is an identity that sets us apart from others. It is not a static phenomenon that sets is apart from others. The self is shaped by experiences, both good and bad. The work of Sociologists Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead, support our understanding of the formation of the self.  Cooley: Looking-Glass Self He used the phrase looking-glass self to emphasize that the self is the product of social interactions. The process of developing a self identity or self-concept has three phases: We imagine how we present ourselves to others. We imagine how others evaluate ourselves. We develop some sort of feeling about ourselves as a result of these impressions. A critical point of Cooley's looking-glass self is that the self results from an individual's “imagination” of how others view him or her. As a result, we can develop self-identities based on incorrect perceptions of how others see us. Mead: Stages of the Self George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)developed a useful model of the process by which the self emerges, defined by three stages: The Preparatory Stage- Children imitate the people around them, especially family members with whom they continually interact. The Play Stage- As children develop skill in communicating through symbols, they gradually become more and more aware of social relationships and begin “role taking”. Children pretend to be other people. The Game Stage- Children no longer just plays roles, but begins to consider several tasks and relationships. Children grasp not only their own social positions but also those of others around them.  Mead's Theory of the Self He says that the self begins at a privileged, central position in a person's world. Young children picture themselves as the focus of everything around them and find it difficult to consider the perspectives of others. As maturity is reached, the self changes and begins to reflect greater concern about the reactions of others. The term significant others is used to refer to those individuals who are most important in the development in the self, whether that be positive or negative. Mead's Theory of the Self George Herbert Mead (1863-193) surmised that: The self is the ability that develops over time to take oneself as an object through a process called taking the role of the other. Mead also distinguished between the I - the part of the self that is unconscious and creative - and the Me - the organized set of others’ attitudes assumed by the individual. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Socialization and Interaction These phenomena are instrumental in shaping people as individuals. The analysis of these issues is the most basic unit of sociological analysis. Sociologists are interested in the micro- macro continuum, analyzing from the smallest social realities to the largest trends in our social world. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. The Individual and the Self The primary concern for sociologists is that of the individual in general. The “nature” argument suggests that being human is a natural instinct. The “nurture” argument suggests that humanness is based on the way we are socialized by others, it is taught; therefore learning is the key to being human. The reality is that both are critically important. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Symbolic Interaction and the Development of the Self Human development relies heavily on interaction and is a process of learning how to use symbols and meaning to effectively communicate and transmit culture. Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929; American) The Looking Glass Self Our self-image reflects how others respond to us. We only develop a self-concept by interacting with others. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. The Individual and the Self The Individual as Performer Erving Goffman (1922-1982). Dramaturgy: social life is a series of dramatic performances. Impression management: when people interact with others they use a variety of techniques to control the image that they want to project. Front stage: the social performance is designed to define the situation for those observing it. Back stage: people express themselves in ways that are suppressed in the front. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc.  Goffman's Presentation of the Self Erving Goffman suggested that many of our daily activities involve attempts to convey impressions of who we are. Early in life, the individual learns to slant his or her presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences, which he called impression management. Goffman in his theory made many explicit parallels to the theatre that his view has been termed the dramaturgical approach. According to this perspective, people are like performers in action. Goffman also made note of another aspect of the self- face-work. We feel the need to maintain a proper image of the self, if we are to continue social interaction. This “face” is essentially our appearance to everyone around them, and more over, to ourselves.  Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development  Each stage represents a source of unconscious conflict between the id and the parents or society who put restrictions on the gratification of instinctual drives and unconscious desires. The parents and society help create the superego, which mediate the battles of id for influence over the ego.  Fixation, getting stuck in a stage, can occur from either over-gratification or under-gratification of the id’s desires.  Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Stage Ages Erogenous Key Events or Complexes Possible problems Zone caused by fixation Birth Mouth “Oral fixation” Oral Breast Overeating, smoking, to 18 feeding, talkative, overly quiet, mths. overly demanding, eating, argumentative, oral chewing & dependency biting  Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Stage Ages Erogenous Key Events or Complexes Possible problems Zone caused by fixation Anal 18 Anus Toilet training Anal mths. retentive – to 3 neat, stingy, yrs. rigid Anal expulsive – messy & disorganized, etc.  Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Stage Ages Erogenous Key Events or Possible problems Zone Complexes caused by fixation Phallic 3 – 6 Oedipus Complex: Going through Genitals yrs. Competition against life trying to prove father for mother’s manhood affection; fear of Searching for castration (castration mother-figure in anxiety) results in relationships identification with Gender identity father Electra complex – difficulties female version Sexual Penis envy – difficulties feeling of loss that Women feeling generates hostility inferior toward mother  Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Stage Ages Erogenous Key Events or Complexes Possible problems Zone caused by fixation Latency 6 to NA Repression of Continued repression sexual feelings of sexual urges and an 12 Focus on social increased use of yrs. & intellectual skills defense mechanisms Same sex such as sublimation friendship …  Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Stage Ages Erogenous Key Events or Possible problems Zone Complexes caused by fixation Genital 12 Genitals Seeking intimate (Fixation may yrs & relationships have occurred at earlier stages) on Continued problems depending on fixation patterns  Sigmund Freud In summary, Freud stressed the role of inborn drives in channelling human behaviour. Freud also believed that the self is a social product, and that aspects of one's personality are influenced by other people. He also said that our natural impulsive instincts are in constant conflict with societal constraints. Part of us seeks limitless pleasure, while another part favours rational behaviour. By interacting with others, we learn the expectations of society then select behaviour most appropriate to our own culture. Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development. The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months) Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years) Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five) Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11) Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18) Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40) Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65) Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair Inc. (Older adulthood from 65 to death) Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Erickson’s Key Concepts Epigenetic principle: This principle suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and in the context of a larger community. Psychosocial Crises Timing Virtues Maladaptations/Malignancies  Significant Psychosocial Psychosocial Maladaptations & Stage (age) Psychosocial crisis relations modalities virtues malignancies I (0-1) -- to get, to give in sensory distortion -- trust vs mistrust mother hope, faith infant return withdrawal II (2-3) -- autonomy vs shame to hold on, to let impulsivity -- parents will, determination toddler and doubt go compulsion III (3-6) -- to go after, to ruthlessness -- initiative vs guilt family purpose, courage preschooler play inhibition to complete, to IV (7-12 or so) -- neighbourhood narrow virtuosity -- industry vs inferiority make things competence school-age child and school inertia together V (12-18 or so) -- ego-identity vs role- peer groups, to be oneself, to fanaticism -- fidelity, loyalty adolescence confusion role models share oneself repudiation to lose and find VI (the 20’s) -- partners, promiscuity -- intimacy vs isolation oneself in a love young adult friends exclusivity another VII (late 20’s to 50’s) -- generativity vs self- household, to make be, to overextension -- care middle adult absorption/stagnation workmates take care of rejectivity to be, through VIII (50’s and beyond) mankind or integrity vs despair having been, to wisdom presumption -- despair -- old adult “my kind” face not being Socialization Socialization is the process of learning and effectively integrating themselves into a group or society. It almost always involves a process of interaction as those with knowledge and experience teach those with a need to acquire that knowledge. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Socialization Socialization starts in childhood (when children develop a self) and continues over the life span (as adults learn how to function within a changing society). Agents of socialization are those who do the socializing. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Childhood Socialization: The Family Parents are called primary agents of socialization because children acquire their first knowledge of language, norms, and values from them. Parents also engage in anticipatory socialization with their children, teaching them what will be expected of them in the future. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Childhood Socialization: Schools and Teachers As children mature, other people and organizations become socializing forces. After parents and family, schools and teachers are the most important agents of socialization. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Childhood Socialization: Peers A good deal of socialization at school takes place informally through interaction with fellow schoolmates. As children mature they spend an increasing amount of time in the company of friends. Peer socialization is increasingly likely to conflict with what is being taught at home and in the schools. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Childhood Socialization: Gender Gender socialization is the transmission of norms and values about what boys and girls can and should do. This process starts even before babies are born. Gender differences (and expectations of behavior) are reinforced by clothes and toys. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Childhood Socialization: Mass Media and the New Media Until recently, much of the emphasis on the role of the media in socialization focused on television. As children mature, more of their socialization takes place via the computer, smartphones, video games, and other new emerging technologies. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Childhood Socialization: Consumer Culture One needs to be socialized in order to know how and what to consume. Socialization of this type takes place (mainly) in consumption sites (malls, shopping sites on the Internet). The items we consume (purchase) reinforce lessons about race, class, and gender. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Adult Socialization: The Workplace Increasing numbers of workers change jobs and even careers with frequency. Resocialization is the process of unlearning old behaviors and norms (the old job or career) and learning new behaviors and norms (the new job or career). Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Adult Socialization: Total Institutions A total institution is a closed, all- encompassing place of residence that is set off from the rest of society. The primary purpose is resocialization. Examples are prisons and the military. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Other Agents of Adult Socialization Changes in social values and norms Family changes Geographic mobility Changes associated with aging Changes in consumption settings Changes in national economies – the 2008 Recession Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Interaction Interaction is social engagement involving two or more individuals. Key building block for macroscopic social phenomena Superordinate-Subordinate Examples include between teacher and student in the classroom, judge and defendant in the courtroom, and guard and prisoner in jail. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Interaction Reciprocity and Exchange A rational process where those involved seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs “Doing” Interaction - Ethnomethodology Interaction is something that people “do”; something that they accomplish on a day-to- day basis. Conversation analysis Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Interaction Interaction Order A social domain that is organized and orderly, but created informally and governed by those involved in the interaction. Status refers to a position within a social system that someone occupies. Ascribed status Achieved status Master status Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Interaction A role is what is expected of someone who occupies a given status. Role conflict Role overload Role-making Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Micro-Level Social Structures Human relationships and interactions are instrumental in the formation of social structures – the enduring and regular social arrangements that define a society’s social arrangements. Interpersonal Relationships Dyads Triads Social Networks Groups, organizations, societies, global networks Network analysis Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Micro-Level Social Structures Groups A group is a relatively small number of people who over time develop a patterned relationship. Different types of groups include primary, secondary, reference, in groups, and out groups. Conformity While some conformity to the group is necessary for a group to survive, too much conformity can have disastrous consequences. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. QUESTIONS AND COMMENTS? Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc.  SOC 1100 The Study of Society Social Stratification; Assigned Readings 1. Ritzer, George. (2018), Introduction to Sociology Chapters 8, Pgs. 252-290. 2. Ballantine, Jeannne H. and et al (2016). Our Social World : Introduction to Sociology. Chapter 7, Pgs. 188-229. Andrew Hicks Department of Sociology Faculty of Social Sciences University of Guyana Dimensions of Social Stratification Social Stratification involves hierarchal differences associated with economic positions, social status and political power. Social stratification has a significant effect on how valuable resources are allocated in society. Inequality refers to those societal positions that yield the greatest benefits – money, status, and power specifically – to some and not others. The major systems of stratification are: class, caste & estate/slavery … Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Dimensions of Social Stratification Social Class: refers to economic position in the stratification system based on income. People with similar income and wealth rank close to one another. Marx Upper class are the Bourgeoisie who own the means of production. Lower class are the Proletariat, the workers. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Dimensions of Social Class Status The prestige attached to one’s position in society Higher status---more formal education Lower status---less formal education Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Dimensions of Social Class Power The ability to get others to do what you want them to Exists in almost every institution Those who have lots of power rank high in the stratification system, while those with little or no power are near the bottom Greater income is generally associated with more power Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Dimensions of Social Class Consistency Across Dimensions of Stratification Similar positions are accompanied by similar rankings on all three dimensions (power, status, and power). The manager of a department within a corporation is likely to have a middle-class salary, mid-range wealth, and middling prestige. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality The stratification in most of the world is based on money. In a social structure where money is defined as valuable and desirable, the occupational structure is characterized by a payment system in which those in higher-level positions are rewarded with higher pay. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Jean Baudrillard, in his critique of money economies, argued for an economy and social system based on symbolic exchange: Exchange, or swapping, is valued in itself and for the human relationships involved and not because of the economic gains derived from it. Greater contributions to the well-being of the group are rewarded with higher ranking in the group, rather than with money. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Income The amount of money a person earns (job, business, returns on assets) Usually measured year to year Wealth Total amount of a person’s financial assets, less total liabilities Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Income Inequality Politically charged issue Since the 1970s there has been a substantial increase in income inequality in many countries, including in the Americas. In 1979, the top 1% of Americans earned 9% of all income; in 2007 the top 1% earned 23.5% of all income. The Occupy Wall Street social movement, begun in 2011, was a response to the income disparity in the United States. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Reasons for Income Inequality - the consequences of a “winner-take-all” society: Deindustrialization Technological advances Political climate Tax cuts, and shift in tax policies to favour long- term capital gains Cuts to public benefits Incomes for executives and superstars in sports and entertainment have skyrocketed. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Wealth Inequality Much greater than income inequality Great wealth brings great advantages It can be invested to generate more wealth. It can purchase material comforts. The wealthy can achieve a high level of material security. Wealth purchases freedom and autonomy. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Wealth Inequality Wealth is an important factor in gaining similar positions in the other dimensions of stratification. The wealthy have access to many forms of power and control that are not accessible by others: They control charities and other philanthropic organizations. They can manipulate the political sphere. They can use their money to directly gain control of political offices. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Wealth Inequality Wealth and upper-class position is passed from one generation to another, which makes wealth self-perpetuating. A lack of wealth is also self-perpetuating because there is nothing to pass to the next generation to spur a rise from poverty. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Poverty A great concern in society due to the many problems associated with it (poor health, lower life expectancy, etc.). The great disparity between the rich and the poor is considered by many to be a moral problem for society as a whole. Some argue that the poor are a drag on society, others that the poor are the victims of a system that impoverishes them. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Analyzing poverty: The sociological perspective is that larger social forces create and perpetuate poverty for 3 basic reasons: Poverty is built-in to the capitalist system Competition between social classes encourages those with power to enhance their position by limiting others’ access to opportunities, resources and rewards. Government actions to reduce or ameliorate poverty are generally limited both by policy and by American ideology (hard work = success and riches). Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality There are two broad types of poverty: Absolute poverty: a measure of what people need in order to survive, remains constant over time Relative poverty: defined by people’s impressions that they are poor relative to others (not an objective standard) Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Poverty in the United States: Poverty line: households who fall below a specific threshold are considered to not have access to enough to survive. Figured by the Social Security Administration by multiplying the cost of a “nutritionally adequate food plan” by 3. 2012: $23,050 for a family of 4 and $11,170 for a single adult; 46.2 million people lived below the poverty line. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Economic Inequality Poverty The Femininzation of Poverty means that those living in poverty are increasingly more likely to be women than men. Women are more likely to live alone. Women have lower average earnings than men. More children are being born to unmarried women. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Social Mobility Social mobility refers to the ability or inability for society members to change their position in the hierarchy. Types of social mobility: Intergenerational: the difference between parents’ social class position and the position achieved by their children Intragenerational: movement up or down the stratification system in one’s lifetime Occupational: changes in work either across or within generations Structural: effect of changes in the larger society on the position of individuals in the stratification system Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Social Mobility Positions based on achievement – or the accomplishments and/or merit of the individual – are characteristic of open stratification systems. Positions based on ascription – being born with or inheriting certain characteristics such as race, gender, caste, or wealth – are characteristic of closed systems of stratification. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Social Mobility Caste is an extreme stratification system associated with ascription where individual mobility is severely restricted, and there is very little possibility for changing status of the group as a whole. Slavery is an extreme stratification system associated with ascription where people are defined as property, involuntarily placed in perpetual servitude, and not given the same rights as the rest of society. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Theories of Social Stratification Structural/Functional (Macro-level approach) All societies need to be stratified. Certain positions require more education and expertise and have more responsibility. For society to fill such positions, more wealth and prestige have to be attached to them. The implication is that without high rewards, high-level positions would remain understaffed or unfilled. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Theories of Social Stratification Conflict/Critical (Macro-level approach) Argue that stratified social structures promote inequality Focus on the control that those in the upper levels exercise over culture, and how the deployment of cultural ideals (hard work) serve to perpetuate an unequal system Question whether lower higher-level positions are less pleasant than lower-level positions Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Theories of Social Stratification Conflict/Critical Accept that some positions (lawyer) require more education than others (garbage collector), but argue the some lower level positions (garbage collector) are more important than some higher level positions (lawyer) Feminists focus on gender as the determinant of social stratification Critical theories of race argue that race is the determinant of position in the system of stratification Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Theories of Social Stratification Colonialism: Creates stratification between indigenous residents and in-coming settlers; primarily about political control and the extraction of resources Imperialism: Involves control without the creation of colonies, more defined by economic control and exploitation Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Theories of Social Stratification Post- and Neo-colonialism Marked by a continued dependency, after the colonial power has departed, and an economic subservience in the world economic system World Systems Theory: Stratification among nation-states is based on the economic role a country plays in the global system of production. Nation-states at the periphery are dependent on, and exploited by, nation-states at the core. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Theories of Social Stratification Symbolic Interactionist Social stratification is a function of micro-level actions and interactions. Stratification involves interaction between people who occupy different positions. People struggle over things that are symbolically important at various positions in the stratification system. A fluid process, in particular focus on the struggle over symbols of success and status. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Consumption and Social Stratification Different positions in the system involve differences in consumption. Stratified Consumption Those in higher levels of the stratification system seek to distinguish their consumption from those below them (fashion is an example). Conspicuous Consumption People wanting others to see what they consume, which communicates an elite status. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Globalization and Stratification The Global North and South The global north (northern hemisphere) nations are the wealthiest and most powerful, and they dominate, control, and oppress the nations in the global south (southern hemisphere). The Bottom Billion Have incomes of only about one fifth of those in other developing countries Low life expectancy, high infant mortality rate, high malnutrition Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. Globalization and Stratification The Race to the Bottom Those near the bottom of the global system must offer lower prices than the competition, which are gained by reducing costs, which negatively impacts their own workers. The Global Digital Divide Many people in the world do not have access to computers, PDAs, high-speed internet, or the English language. Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc. QUESTIONS AND COMMENTS? Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc.  THE PASSWORD IS: SOC1100FA-23 PLEASE NOTE THAT THE PASSWORD IS CASE SENSITIVE Copyright 2014, SAGE Publications, Inc.