Sociology Lecture Notes PDF

What is Sociology? “The study of human behaviour in society” (Anderson and Taylor 2004)​ “The study of human behaviour as shaped by collective life” (Hues, Markson and Stein 1993).​ Collective life – groups/institutionalized practices​ “The study of human social li...

What is Sociology? “The study of human behaviour in society” (Anderson and Taylor 2004)​ “The study of human behaviour as shaped by collective life” (Hues, Markson and Stein 1993).​ Collective life – groups/institutionalized practices​ “The study of human social life, groups and societies” (Giddens 1986)​ “The scientific analysis of the origin and development of human societies” (Mustapha 2018)​ ​ Keywords: Study; human behaviour, human social life; societies​ Society - Morris Ginsberg defines society as a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior, which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations, or who differ from them in behavior​ ​ Sociology ​ ​ Socialization – the processes through which we (as individuals) learn to be members of a groups and the wider society​ Learn the norms, values, beliefs, traditions of the groups they belong to, as well as the wider society​ Two types of socialization​ Primary socialization​ Secondary socialization Social stratification – A form of social inequality. The presence of distinct social groups which are ranked one above the other in terms of factors such as wealth and prestige. ​ ​ Social Structure – How society is organized; the positioning of roles, institutions; groups; cultures of the society in relation to each other Positivism – the use of scientific methods for the study of human behaviour​ ​ Interpretivism - Social life is explained in terms of meanings people use to make sense of their experiences; reality and truth is subjective ​ Methodology - the general approach in conducting research on your topic and determines what research method you will use​ Quantitative​ Qualitative​ FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE Focused on interrogating subordination and oppression of women in societies Tries to make visible the Inherent gender biases in: Societies and institutions Roles and functions of individuals Theory and research Gender has an important role in the analysis of the social world Men and women have different experiences of the world; different perspectives These differing perspectives produce different conceptualization and understandings of the world we live in Interrogates positions of power and authority traditionally held by men Critically examines gender roles in society Natural or socially constructed Maintenance of power structures Neither a macro, nor a micro perspective, but rather a combination of both Waves of feminism: First wave – late 19th to early 20th century – focused on the right to vote Second wave – began in the 1960’s Attempted to challenge issues of inequality and discrimination faced by women in numerous areas: careers and jobs, wages, within the home, gendered roles The personal was connected to the wider structures of society, therefore the personal was political Radical feminism Third wave – 1990s onwards Focused on the power of language and definitions The social construction of gender, sex, gendered roles Intersectionality Kimberle Crenshaw; Patricia Hill Collins Fourth wave – 2012 to present Movements and discourse emerging out of social media and internet interactions; online activism and organization Strong influence of intersectionality DEFINES OF FAMILY Those who share a place of residence, or who are related through blood ties or legal contracts A group of persons directly linked by kin connections, the adult members of which assume responsibility for caring for children. (Giddens 2006) A social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction (Murdock 1949). The family includes adults of both sexes At least two of these adults are in a socially approved sexual relationship Presence of one or more children (either biological or adopted) belonging to the cohabiting adults. According to Mustapha (2009): Families are organized units, based on biological relationships, marriage, or kinship (Mustapha 2010). The units may vary in organization, due to social and cultural factors (norms and values of the society). Families are considered an institution in society. Overall function and role to the society itself. Kinship – ties between individuals that have been established either through marriage, or through lines of descent that connect blood relatives (e.g., siblings, parents, children) Marriage – A legally or socially sanctioned relationships, usually between two individuals. This type of relationship usually includes economic cooperation and sexual activity. Kinship and marriage are often responsible for creating the bonds among members of a family. Monogamy – The coupling of only two adults; only one spouse among partners Polygamy – multiple spouses among adults in a relationship Polygyny – when a man is married to more than one woman at a time Polyandry – when a woman is married to more than one man at a time Family’ does not just refer to the organized units. The family is an important and foundational institution in society. Roles and functions of the family in society: Primary socialization – Teach children, as young members of the society, the norms and values required to be a member of society. Units of production, and economic cooperation Reproduction and procreation FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE ON FAMILY The family has important roles and functions that are necessary for consensus in the society As a social institution, it is important for the maintenance of order and stability In addition to the three aforementioned roles and functions, the family is also tasked with providing companionship and sexual gratification Societal norms dictate and economic roles of members of the family (division of labour according to sex FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE OF THE FAMILY The family as an institution can reinforce and maintain the subjugation and exploitation of women Socialization into gender roles occur within the family Capitalist exploitation and the unpaid labour of women within the family system (household chores, child-care, care-work in general) There is a patriarchal understanding and system of families CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE OF FAMILY Families are units of exploitation for the needs of the capitalist class in society. The family as an institution is a system of power reflecting and reinforcing the inequalities in society - socialization The family has a role in supporting the capitalist system through the provision of labour, provision of unpaid labour, and the consumption of capitalist goods. INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE OF FAMILY Deals more with the interactions and communications within the family itself. Interactions reinforce and reproduce societal norms and values, gender roles, divisions of labour in the society Implications for authority and power within the household FAMILY IN THE CARIBBEAN Colonialism, forced and coerced migration, enslavement and indentureship, the plantation system, and westernization have all impacted on the family systems of the Caribbean. West Indian Royal Commission (1937) – The Social Pathology thesis ○“The man was not the head of the household. It identified the woman as the supporter of the home and claimed that promiscuity and illegitimacy were prevalent.” (Mustapha 2013, 139) The Moyne Commission Report (1945): ○Deviant family forms in the Caribbean; families were loose and unstable ○High rates of illegitimacy; absenteeism of fathers ○Conjugal ties were often promiscuous and transitory ○Many social problems in Caribbean society stemmed from this deviant family form Criticisms of the Social Pathology thesis: Ethnocentric (and racist) and an imposition of “western” and Christian standards Did not take history into consideration Did not recognize the values, norms, cultural traditions of the different ethnic groups of the Caribbean For example: extended family forms Changes in gender roles ○Women’s access to education ○Women and formal work outside the household ○Economic access and contributions ○Men and their roles within the home (stay at home dads; more household responsibilities) ○Authority within the home Changes in the size of families in the Caribbean Length of marriages and rates of divorce THE CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE Macro-perspective focused on power, inequality and struggle  Usually called the Marxist or Social-Conflict Perspective/Rooted in the work of Karl Marx Capitalist society is structured in a particular way: Existence of two classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat These are opposing groups in society in conflict with each other Conflict is evident in numerous ways Competing economic interests among the classes Inequality within the society The economy influences social relations The dominant group not only controls capital but the status-quo of society The classes: Both have roles in production process Both have a relationship to the means of production Share an unequal relationship where one group benefits off the exploitation of the other , INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE A micro-perspective – pays attention to society from the individual up Emerged out of Interpretivism which was put forward by Max Weber Interpretivism: Interpretations can be multiple Interpretations are subjective Interpretations are contextual There is not only one truth, one reality, one meaning, one understanding Max Weber – Structures are created through the social interaction of others. Action determined by meaning and interactions in society. Meaning – the collective understanding around an object, concept or term Communication – the exchange of meanings through verbal and non-verbal cues  Interaction – action or communication, between or among, two or more people, groups, and institutions EDUCATION Macionis (2003) – Education is the social institution guiding a society’s transmission of knowledge (basic facts, skills, norms and values) Giddens (2009) – Education is a social institution which enables and promotes the acquisition of skills, knowledge, the broadening of personal horizons Two types of education: Informal education – Learning that takes place through informal mediums such as family interactions, peer activities, and consumption of the media Formal education – An institution of modern society; it reflects and transmits societal norms, values and culture; prepares individuals for their roles in the wider society. Education, both informal and formal, is a key source of socialization in society FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE Focuses on the ways in which universal education serves the needs of a society. Manifest role – Conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next generation Latent role – the transmission of core values and social control Education as a formal institution connects the individual to the wider society. Education contributes to social solidarity and consensus through its connection to the other institutions of society Education socializes members of a society into the rules and punishments of that particular society (belonging) Role allocation – role according to ability Sorting and placement – separating individuals according to ability and merit Responsible for secondary socialization CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE The purpose of education is the maintenance of social inequality and preservation of power for those who dominate the society. While this perspective pays attention to the same features of the education system as the functionalist perspective, it sees the functions of these as contributing to the status quo of stratification and training the lower classes into obedient labour. Sorting occurs along class and in some cases, ethnic lines Hidden curriculum – Training members of the working class to accept their position in society; benefits the capitalist economic system. Question: Is education stratified in Trinidad and Tobago? SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE Focuses on what is directly observable in the classroom; teacher-student interactions (teacher expectations, perceptions, attitudes, performance) Labelling theory – Students are labelled based on how they are perceived by administration and their peers. They are then treated based on how they are labelled. The self-fulfilling prophesy – Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) conducted a study demonstrating that an outcome can occur because someone predicted or expected it. A random sample students of average IQ were predicted to have a sharp increase in skill and ability by researchers to teachers. Rist (1970) conducted a similar study where teachers placed students in the classroom based on perceived ability; after monitoring, students placed closer to the teacher performed better FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE Explores and investigates gender equality in the education system. How the education system maintains gender inequality through schooling and socialization. Gender bias in the classroom around achievements and merit. Gender bias in access to education, streaming students in particular subjects and fields. For example, women in STEM. Interrogates assumptions around intelligence and learning capacity based on sex and gender. EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN The history of education in the Caribbean is one closely tied to the history of the region. According to Mustapha (2009), tracing the history of education in the Caribbean can be broken up into three general time periods: ○Pre-emancipation of enslavement ○Post-emancipation of enslavement ○Political independence in the Caribbean These time periods make visible issues of accessibility (restricted access according to racially stratified society) Political Independence to present day ○Wide-spread accessibility to education at all levels ○Merit system based on academic achievement determined entry into institution ○Education was a key sector for development in the Caribbean ○Education a core institution for the function of other institutions in society today PRE-EMANCIPATION ○Access to formal education restricted solely to the white upper-classes of colonial Caribbean society ○Restricting access was a form of control, as education could have been a tool of resistance to the enslaved Africans ○Education therefore reinforced and maintained the divisions in society, and the flow of power and influence Post-Emancipation period ○Education still a tool, but not only to the white elites of Caribbean society. ○Involvement of the Church in providing access to education. ○For the now liberated Afro-Caribbean population, some forms of formal education was now accessible, allowing for participation in the wider economy, and opportunities for advancement. ○This access was mainly to primary school education; and very limited access to available secondary school education. Education was still a tool of power and control by the upper classes ○Primary school education was a tool of assimilation for non-white groups of society ○Secondary school education was reserved initially, for the sons of the upper classes of Caribbean society. ○The role of Church in establishing schools (reasons for establishing schools) For example: Canadian missionaries provided education to indentured labourers (tool of ‘civilizing’) ○Tertiary level education/higher education - restricted access, usually out-sourced until the establishment of UWI Mona Campus in 1948. RELIGION A cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals that provides a sense of ultimate meaning and purpose by creating an idea of reality that is sacred, all-encompassing and supernatural. (Giddens 2009; Durkheim 1976; Berger 1967) A system of beliefs, practices, and philosophical values shared by a group of people; it defines the sacred, helps explain life, and offers salvation from human existence—Tischler (2002) According to Emile Durkheim (1915), Religion often encompasses things that surpass the limits of our knowledge…a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community, called a church, all those who adhere to them.” Durkheim - the world is divided into two based on religion, the sacred and the profane (non-sacred). Yinger (1995) defined religion as ‘a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of human life.” FEATURES OF RELIGION Rituals are formalized and repeated social behaviours that communicate sacred and symbolic meanings to members of a religious group. Prayer – ritualistic private acts that serve as forms of communication with unknown forces, supernatural, and “higher” beings. Both of these provide insight into the values and beliefs of a religion, and are developed over time in accordance with the culture of the society BELIEF Religion usually has a core belief system around the supernatural. Religion provides different explanations around various life experiences, such as birth, death, success and failure, etc., and these form the foundation of the belief system of a religion. The beliefs are the religious doctrines that then inform rituals. Organization Most religions in the world have possess a very solid organization structure. Usually hierarchical in nature, with religious leaders at the helm. As an organization, beliefs of the religion can be promoted, and there is the fostering of bonds and relationships among believing members. TYPES OF RELIGION Tischler (2002) suggests that religion is often classified into four types: Supernaturalism – implies the existence of supernatural forces that can influence human behaviour as well as animate and inanimate objects. Animism – is the belief that spirits and ghosts coexist in the world with human beings. These spirits can be good or evil and inhabit animate and inanimate beings. Theism – the belief in the existence of gods and goddesses who can influence human behaviour. Abstract ideals – the focus on correct thinking and behaviour that facilitate the achievement of specific goals. E.g. Buddhism FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE Religion serves a function, both to the individual and to the society. Individuals find comfort and security in the rituals and beliefs of a religion. Malinowski believes rituals would either produce or reduce anxiety during times of stress. At the societal level, religion forms the foundation of the norms and values of society; provides a moral code of behaviour. Durkheim - Religion reinforces the collective conscience upon which society is built. Example: collective worship through which members of society express, communicate and understand the morals that bind them. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE “The opiate of the masses”; a social drug that negates the negative experiences of exploitation and oppression in a capitalist society. Religions masks the systems of power in a class-based society; keeps the masses blind to reality. In the hands of the bourgeoisie, religion was a tool of social control. Restricts the formation of class consciousness, which is needed for revolutionary change in the structure and relations of society, instead it reinforces a false consciousness. Lenin argues that “religion is a kind of spiritual gin in which the slaves of capital drown their human shape and their claims to any decent life.” INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE Focuses on the practices and rituals in relationship; the study of the culture of religion. The importance of symbolism in religion. The experience of religion; the creation of meaning and value through religion. Religion as a code of ethics for work and achievement. Weber’s view on religion – Religion was an important aspect of the worldview of societies. Religion tied to the development of societies, as seen in his work on the Protestant Ethic. In this book, the development of a capitalist society was tied to the Protestant worldview. FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE Religion as an instrument of domination and oppression based on sex and gender. Strongly informs gender roles and behaviors especially within the family system. Religion as a product of the patriarchy (the organizational structure promotes men into the positions of power). Misinterpretation and use of religious beliefs, values and rituals to maintain control over women, their identities, their bodies, etc. Who is tasked with interpreting religious texts for the masses? RELIGION AND SECULARIZATION Secularization The process whereby religious thinking, practice and institutions lose social significance in society. This is said to occur when the mysterious and supernatural influence of religion no longer has a significant impact on members of society. Has increased as society becomes more rationalized and industrialized. Characterized by: Separation of the state and the church. An increasing role of the state to guide norms, values, morals and ethics of society. Legislation versus religious doctrine FORMS OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION Church – institutionalized religious organizations, for example, the Catholic Church Tend to be well-established, large memberships; bureaucratic structure Managed by trained clergy and other paid officials Aligns with the general consensus of the society Denomination – these religious organizations bear features of a church, however they also display adjustments to align with the wider society. Supported by the wider institutions of the society Embraces the wider norms and values of the society Formal bureaucratic structures, hierarchical power structure Mostly middle-class membership Sect – these are religious organizations that outright reject aspects of the social environment within which they reside. For example, Mormonism rejecting monogamy. Usually a small, exclusive membership, where members are mostly converted and not born into the faith Tend to be in high levels of tension or conflict with the wider society Usually formed through a split from a Church Dogmatic and fundamentalist No formal organization Cult – A religious organization that is independent of the usual religious traditions of the wider society. Cults usually form during times of distress and rapid change in society and the established religions fails to provide answers or solutions to the problems at hand. The presence of a charismatic leader who introduces new and innovative ideas around life, conduct, rules and laws Has the potential to become a sect or new church over time with increased membership and influence Mainly appeals to lower socio-economic groups RELIGION IN THE CARIBBBEAN The present state of religion in the Caribbean is closely tied to the history of the region Migration resulted in the presence of numerous religions becoming established in the Caribbean: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism. Religion was once a colonial tool of power and control of the non-white masses Assimilation and education “Creolization” of religion in the Caribbean, whereby traditional religious forms and been transformed to meet the needs of the people, region and context. Religious syncretism where aspects of more dominant religions have been adopted by non-Christian, oppressed religious groups, in order to safely practice, For example, Orisha/Shangoism in Trinidad. Caribbean-born religious movements - Rastafarianism