SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEWER.pdf

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PRELIM REVIEWER HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION: Social Psychology — scientific study of human behavior in social groups. — It attempts to understand how an individual & behavior, thoughts, and feelings are influenced by others in different social situations. Social Psy...

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PRELIM REVIEWER HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION: Social Psychology — scientific study of human behavior in social groups. — It attempts to understand how an individual & behavior, thoughts, and feelings are influenced by others in different social situations. Social Psychology emerged as a new discipline in the 19th century — The theory of this is a product of the scholastic contributions of psychologists and sociologists. — For this reason, Social Psychology is generally viewed as a branch of both Psychology and Sociology. Psychologists — focus on understanding the underlying psychological factors of human behavior (e.g. emotions, feelings, cognition, attitudes, memories, learning, and unique experiences). Sociologists — focus on understanding the social factors of human behavior (e.g. social experience, norms, values, customs, social dynamics, social interactions, and social influence). The growing focus of social scientists on human behavior by considering the psychological as well as sociological dynamics of behavior under a single discipline led to the emergence of Social Psychology. DAWN OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1898-1934) Wilhelm Maximillian Wundt (1832-1921) A German psychologist viewed as the Father of Psychology. In 1868, he was the first to propose ‘Social Psychology’ as a branch of general psychology. Published many articles under the subject to explain that there are also social factors shaping the human behavior. Despite his widely accepted efforts establishing the discipline of Social Psychology, his ideas had little influence on American Social thinkers because his literary works were not translated into English. Norman Triplett (1898) American psychologist at Indiana University. Conducted the first laboratory experiment to understand the mutual impact actions of individual known as social facilitation. Social Facilitation is a phenomenon where people showed increased levels of effort and performance when in the presence of others – whether it be real, imagined, implied, or virtual – compared to their effort and performance levels when they are alone, imagined, or implied. 2 Types of Social Facilitation (Positive Effect): 1.) Co-action effects — when the presence of others doing the same task cause an increase in one’s performance. 2.) Audience effects — When the mere presence of others as an audience causes an increase in one’s performance. Social Facilitation (Negative Effect): Social Inhibition — refers to the tendency for one’s performance to decrease or worsen in the presence of others. 1900 – VÖLKERPSYCHOLOGIE Wilhelm Wundt published the first volume of this book to explain the social behavior which later emerged as a social theory of Social Psychology. Völkerpsychologie — means “ethnic psychology” in English. Völk — German word for “people, nation, tribe, or race.” The book consists of a total of 10 volumes with much details about Social Psychology from Wundt’s perspective and he knew this was essential for the completion of the subject. One of the reasons, he created the book was because it was a new way to simply complete research without the use of experiments.  The book follows in the tradition of Lazarus and Steinthal by keeping the notion that specific social types of cognition, emotion, and behavior are base in social groups – “communities”. 1908 – TEXTSBOOKS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Published by William McDougal (psychologist) and Edward Ross (sociologist). “An Introduction to Social Psychology” by William McDougal — about the social behavior in biology, focusing on the individual and attributing most social behavior to instinct which makes his work one of the first in modern psychology to take human motivation as its central concern. — His emphasis on the instinctive basis of social phenomena also helped promote the individualistic approach typical of modern social psychology. — Developed a Darwinian theory of human behavior based on the assumption of inherited instinct, or tendency, to note particular stimuli and to respond to them for the purpose of attaining some goal. “Social Psychology: An Outline and Sourcebook” by Edward Ross — a book containing information about social psychology in his reflection and learnings on what the subject is all about. — He wanted to share the ideas to his fellow-workers and thus, hoping to aid knowledge on the idea of Social Psychology to be absorbed in the growth of science and continued to be studied by future students and researchers in the field. 1920 – WILLY HELLPACH Founded the first Institute of Social Psychology in Germany. 1924 – FLOYD ALLPORT Published the third volume of Social Psychology which covers the important areas of modern Social Psychology. 1925 – EDWARD BODARGUS Developed the Social-Distance Scale to measure an individual’s or group’s attitude towards another ethnic group. 1934 – G.H MEAD Published the book: ‘Mind, Self, & Society’ – which focuses on the interaction of self and others. EARLY STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1935-1945) 1936 – MUZAFFAR SHERIF Published the Psychology of Social Norms. He used a lab experiment to study conformity. He used the autokinetic effect, this is where a small spot of light (projected onto a screen) in a dark room will appear to move, even though it is still. 1938 – JOHN DOLLARD Introduced the frustration-aggression hypothesis to under the nature of frustration leading to aggression in social interactions. Psychology of Aggression | Frustration-Aggression Principle — frustration creates anger. If you are blocked from a certain goal by something that seems unfair or frustrating you might feel some aggression. Example: Vending machine eats your money or the paper you spent all night working on didn’t save. 1938-1945 — US government recruited many Social Psychologists to help victims of world war and to understand the socio-psychological factors leading to and controlling wars. EXPANSION STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1948-1984) 1949 – YALE ATTITUDE CHANGE APPROACH An experiment on attitude change and persuasion, the important area of Social Psychology was conducted and findings were published by Carl Hovland. 1954 – GORDON ALLPORT Published and explored PREJUDICE – an important topic of Social Psychology. 1957 – LEON FESTINGER Published the theory of Cognitive Dissonance as the theory itself is an important area of the subject matter of Social Psychology. 1958 – FRITZ HEIDER Published the Psychology of Intrapersonal Relationships as a base for attribution theory. Situational Attribution — external factors. Dispositional Attribution — internal factors. 1963 – STANLEY MILGRAM Published the research findings on exploring the phenomenon of obedience towards authoritative individuals. 1965 – SOCIETY OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (was founded) 1966 – EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (was founded) 1968 – BYSTANDER INTERVENTION MODEL Bibb Latane & John Darley presented the model to explain why an individual may not help in an emergency. The Society for Personality & Social Psychology (SPSP) was founded. 1981 – ALICE EAGLY Along with her collaborators conducted a study with the title: “The meta-analysis of gender disparities in behavior.” 1985 – SOCIAL COGNITION THEORY Published by Shelly Taylor and Susan Fiske, to elaborate cognitive perspectives of Social Psychology. MODERN STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1985-onwards) 1986 – THEORY OF COMMUNICATION & PERSUASION – CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ROUTES Published by John Cacioppo and Richard Petty, to explain the two (2) dimensions of Persuasion for an attitude change in Social Psychology. Central Route — systematic and involves message receivers’ scrutinizing the central, logical merits of a persuasive message. Peripheral Route — heuristic; messages receivers evaluate persuasive messages when they are unmotivated and/or unable to elaborate on its logical merits. 1989 – ‘SOCIAL STIGMA & SELF-ESTEEM’ An article published by Brenda and Jennifer Crocker that focuses on how an individual responds to being a target of stigmatization and discrimination. 1991 – ‘HOW CULTURE SHAPES THE SELF’ An article on the important area of Social Psychology published by Shinobu Kitayama and Hazel Markus. 1995 – ‘STEROTYPE THREAT & INTELLECTUAL-TEST PERFORMANCE’ An article published by Joshua Aronson & Claude Steele that explains how a negative stereotype shapes intellectual performance and identity. RESEARCH METHODS Research Methods — in psychology are strategies, processes, or techniques psychologists use to collect data or evidence in order to investigate research questions. Archival Approaches — the first way that social psychologists can observe social phenomena is not actually to collect any data at all. It involves testing hypotheses by looking at existing data, often data that was collected for a different purpose. 2 Types of Social Facilitation (Positive Effect): 1.) Analyzing Data in Hand — when the presence of others doing the same task cause an increase in one’s performance. Example: Diaries, letters, works of literature, official government documents, public databases from national research centers. 2.) Meta-Analysis — When the mere presence of others as an audience causes an increase in one’s performance. Example: A parent read five studies about childhood anxiety to understand her son’s behavior better. Correlational Approaches — Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research in which the researcher measures two variables and assesses the statical relationship (between them with little or no effort to control extraneous variables). A large amount of data that can be used to build critical linkages, however, they are constrained to their ability to interpret causation. There are essentially two (2) reasons that researchers interested in statistical relationships between variables would choose to conduct a correlational study rather than an experiment. The first is that they do not believe that the statistical relationship is a casual one. The other reason is that the statistical relationship of interest is thought to causal, but the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is impossible, impractical, or unethical. The defining feature of correlational research is that two (2) variables are measured – neither one is manipulated – and this is true regardless of whether the variables are quantitative or categorical. Experimental Approaches — An experiment involves changing one variable, known as the independent variable, and then determining whether this has an influence on another variable, known as the dependent variable. Laboratory Experiments — Majority of social psychology experiments are in the laboratory, often a designated room in which participants can be tested or observed. In some studies, the laboratory will be equipped with televisions, video cameras, computer monitors, microphones, or other experimental apparatus. In other cases, it is a simple room with a table and chair where participants fill out a questionnaire. Benefits of conducting a Laboratory Experiment: The conditions can be highly controlled within the confines of the laboratory, everything (e.g. environment, temperature, instructions given by the researcher) apart from the independent variable can be held constant. Experiments can be described as being high on internal validity because they are conducted in such a controlled environment, they can be replicated. Limitations of conducting a Laboratory Experiment: Although the high degree of control over conditions allows us to infer causality from the findings, it also makes the experiment rather than artificial. In other words, experiments lack external validity. Another limitation is susceptibility to demand characteristics (Orne, 1962), information that participants pick up from the experimental context that leads them to guess what the experimenter is prediciting will happen. Field Experiments — a research method where the independent variable is manipulated, and the dependent variable is measured in a real-world setting. Advantages: High level of Ecological validity, established a causal relationship, reduce chances of demand characteristics and Hawthorne effect. Disadvantages: Lack of control over confounding variables, potential ethical issues of field experiment. Quantitative Research — Collects numerical data points and intervenes or introduces treatments Qualitative Research — Provides deeper insights to help further investigate and understand quantitative data. — A type of research that provides deeper insights into real-world problems. Gathers participants’ experiences, viewpoints, and behaviors rather of providing a number or amount, it addresses the “how’s” and “whys”. It rejects positivism, meaning it rejects the idea that the data we collect about the world can ever be truly objective. — Structured and semi-structured research interviews, focus groups, observation, and reflection on field notes are examples of qualitative data gathering methods. The data often categorized once it is transcribed. — Some of the most used qualitative approaches, such as ethnographic research and grounded theory, are crucial in understanding social systems meaning across different cultures. Ethnographic research collects data to develop theories about meaning systems, while grounded theory is based on observations, and critical social psychology explores how language and culture affects communication. Research Ethics — Regardless of the method used to conduct research in social psychology, because it involves people social psychologists need to be aware of a number of ethical issues. Participant Welfare — Essential that the physical and psychological welfare of participants is protected. Deception — To avoid problems caused by demand characteristics, it is important that participants are blind to aims of the study. For this reason, many social psychology studies involve some degree of deception. Confidentiality — Participants in social psychology research are often required to disclose information of a personal or intimate nature. To reassure participants that this information will not be used against them in any way. Informed Conest & Debriefing — It is normal practice to obtain informed consent from individuals prior to their participation in a study. SOCIAL PERCEPTION INTRODUCTION: Social issues like peace, conflict, and violence are of interest to social psychologists. Social psychology is the scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations (Gilovich, Keltner, & Nisbett, 2006). It studies how individuals relate to the social contexts they live in, particularly their everyday interactions with others. One important assertion of social psychology is that the person is influenced by the social experiment (Ross & Nisbett, 1991). Social Perception — A process by which a person uses the behavior of others to form opinions about individuals regarding their motives, attitudes, or values. It also called interpersonal perception. — Perception is derived from the Latin word percepio, which means “receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind or senses.” — According to APA, it is the process or effect of being aware of things, relationships, and events through the senses, which includes tasks like identifying, observing, and discriminating. — A person learns the rules and accepted norms of a society by interacting with other people in such a manner that they recognize and use social signals to form judgements about social roles, rules, connections, context, or qualities. This learning occurs through both imitation of others and biological survival mechanisms. THEORIES OF PERCEPTION: RICHARD GREGORY’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY — Sensory information alone is insufficient to account for experience. He defines perception as an active process that involves drawing conclusions and interpenetrations based on prior information, experience, and context. — Perception is directly dependent on the information contained in the stimulus. Some claim that perceptual processes are indirect, relying on the perceiver’s expectations, prior knowledge, and the information accessible in the stimulus itself. GIBSON’S THEORY OF PERCEPTION — According to him, perception is a direct process that does not require prior information or inference. Sensory input is abundant and adequate to allow us to make accurate observations about our surroundings. An item can be perceived directly using only the features of the distant stimuli, without the use of interference, memory, representation formation, or the effect of other cognitive processes. There are multiple theories of social perception. The important ones are: ATTRIBUTION THEORY — Focuses on how individuals interpret or perceive other people behavior by attributing it to external or internal factors. External factors like situational factors or chance (luck) while internal are personality traits or abilities. SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY — States that individuals classify other people in social groups on the basis of features they have in common, like country, gender, race or religion. As per this theory, people’s way of perception and interactions with others can be influenced by these group characteristics. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY — People may change their attitudes or perceptions to match their behaviors in an effort to lessen their suffering. People face the discomfort when there is inconsistency among ideas, attitudes and behavior and this also causes psychological pain. — Social comparison theory and stereotype content model are also considered. Leon Festinger (psychologist) initially popularized social comparison theory in 1954. SCT suggests that humans have a fundamental need to compare themselves to others in order to assess their own ideas and talents. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVES: Sociocultural — includes an individual learning based on the accepted standards and ethics or their own society. Evolutionary — includes concepts of biological processes, genetics, inheritance, and gene transmission to explain a person’s behaviors. Social Learning — involves a person learning from parents along with other family members, classmates, community members, and media influencers. Social-Cognitive — entitles the processing of information and includes an individual deeming the worthiness of others’ behaviors. SOCIAL PERCEPTION IN SOCIAL COGNITION — Social cognition is a collection of processes that range from perception to decision-making and underpin the capacity to decipher others’ intents and behaviors to plan to activities that are socially and morally appropriate, in addition to individual and economic concerns. — Investigates how people think and act, as well as how they receive information from their social environments. VARIABLES STUDIED UNDER SOCIAL PERCEPTION: Transfer of information or signal from one person to another without use of words. It occurs through; Facial Expression — a very essential form of communication that can be used to convey a wide range of emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, and excitement. The reflection of an individual’s feelings and emotions can be seen through their face. Eye Contact — a valuable part of non-verbal communication, also known as direct gaze. Staring, in which one person continues to gaze steadily at another is also a form of eye contact. Body Language — includes our postures, hand gestures, and body movements. It provides us with useful information about others because our moods are reflected in the movement of our body, position, and posture. Touching — a form of physical contact that expresses feelings or emotions. It is also a way to communicate with others to show that you care or to help someone directing them. It is also considered as the most intimate non-verbal cues. CAN YOU TELL FROM SOMEONE’S BODY LANGUAGE WHETHER THEY ARE LYING? Dr. Paul Ekman (renowned psychologist) known for his work on emotions and facial expressions, indeed categorized gestures into THREE (3) MAIN TYPES: 1. Illustrators — gestures that are tied closely to speech and are used to emphasize points, represent the flow of thought, or visually illustrate what is being said. For example, when someone says, “the fish was this big,” they might use their hands to show the size of the fish. 2. Manipulators — gestures involve one part of the body interacting with another (e.g. scratching your head, rubbing your hands together, or fidgeting with an object). These/They are often misunderstood. People often think these gestures are indicative of nervousness or deception, but they can also simply be signs of discomfort, boredom, or concentration. 3. Emblems — gestures have specific meanings within a cultural context, like a thumbs-up for approval or a wave for greeting. These are used consciously and can replace or accompany spoken words. Emblems are significant because, unlike illustrators and manipulators, they have clear, defined meaning. Of these three, emblems are the gestures most likely to provide reliable clues to deception because their meanings are well-established and intentional. For instance, if someone gives a thumbs-up but their verbal response is negative, this inconsistency could be a sign of deception. However, it’s important to note that no single gesture can definitely indicate deception; it’s the context and combination of gestures, facial expressions, and verbal clues that provide more reliable indicators. COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION: Attribution — The use of data collected through observation to help individuals understand and rationalize the causes of one’s own and other’s behaviors. Integration — Synthesize multiple pieces of observed behavior and look for patterns. The goal is to create a coherent understanding of the situation and form a holistic view. Confirmation — Finally, verify these impressions, individuals, strive to fully understand, and produce knowledge in the form of various biases. FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION: Forming Impressions — Helps people from initial impressions of others based on their appearance, behavior, and other social cues. These impressions can guide subsequent interactions and influence how people perceive and respond to others over time. Understanding Social Situations — Helps people understand the social context in which interactions take place, including the roles and expectations of different individuals and groups. This understanding can help people navigate complex social situations and communicate effectively with others. Making Judgements — Allows people to make judgements and attributions about the behavior of others, such as whether someone is trustworthy, competent, or likeable. These judgements can guide subsequent interactions and influence the outcomes of social interactions. Facilitating Social Influence — Can influence the extent to which people are influenced by others, such as by shaping their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. By understanding how others perceive them, people can tailor their communication strategies to be more persuasive and effective. Enhancing Social Identity — Can strengthen people’s sense of social identity by reinforcing their membership in certain groups and distinguishing them from others. This can foster feelings of belonging and social connection, which can have important psychological and social benefits. ATTRIBUTION THEORY Attribution Theory — A fundamental concept in social psychology, explains how Individuals interpret the causes of behavior and events. — First proposed by Fritz Heider in the 1950s and expanded by psychologists Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner, the theory explores cognitive processes behind our interpretations of the world and the agency of the people around us. FRITZ HEIDER’S NAÏVE PSYCHOLOGY — Fritz Heider (often considered the Father of Attribution Theory) proposed that people are intuitive psychologists who try to make sense of the world by attributing causes to behavior. He emphasized the role of internal and external attributions in this process. HAROLD KELLY’S COVRAIATION MODEL — Harold Kelly introduced the covariation model, which suggests that people make attributions by considering THREE (3) TYPES OF INFORMATION: 1. Consistency — Does this person behave the same way in similar situations over time? 2. Distinctiveness — Does this person behave differently in different situation? 3. Consensus — Do other people behave similarly in the same situation? — According to this model, a behavior is attributed to a cause with which it covaries. For example, if a person laughs at a comedian’s jokes (consistency), finds the comedian’s jokes funnier than others’ jokes (distinctiveness), and other people also laugh at the comedian’s jokes (consensus), the laughter can be attributed to the comedian’s humor (an external attribution). BERNARD WEINER’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY OF MOTIVATION AND EMOTION — Bernard Weiner expanded Attribution Theory by linking it to motivation and emotion. He proposed that attributions influence emotions and subsequent behaviors. For example, attributing failure to a lack of effort (an internal, controllable cause) might lead to feelings of guilt and a motivation to work harder, whereas attributing it to bad luck (an external, uncontrollable cause) might lead to feelings of helplessness and reduced motivation. TYPES OF ATTRIBUTION: 1. Internal Attributions — Explanations based on an individual’s inherent characteristics (e.g. personality, traits, abilities, and efforts). 2. External Attributions — Explanations ascribe behavior to situational factors outside the individual’s control (e.g. luck, people’s actions, or the environment). 3. Stable Attributions — Imply that the cause of behavior can vary over time and is not consistent. 4. Unstable Attributions — Cause of behavior can vary over time and is not consistent. 5. Controllable Attributions — Imply that the individual had control over the situation or outcome. 6. Uncontrollable Attributions — Suggest that the individual had no control over the situation or outcome. CORE CONCEPTS OF ATTRIBUTION THEORY: Locus of Control — Revolves around whether the cause of an event is perceived to be internal or external. Internal locus of control means the person believes they can influence events and their outcomes. External locus of control suggests that external forces dictate events. Stability — Refers to whether the cause of an event is seen as stable or unstable over time. Stable causes are seen as permanent (e.g. natural ability), whereas unstable causes are temporary (e.g. mood). Controllability — Deals with whether the cause of an event is something that can be controlled. For instance, effort is a controllable factor, while innate ability is not. COMMON ATTRIBUTION BIASES: 1. FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR — FAE also known as correspondence bias, refers to the tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underestimate situational factors when explaining others’ behavior. Example: If a colleague arrives late to a meeting, we might immediately think they are irresponsible or lazy (internal attribution) rather than considering they might not have been stuck in traffic (external attribution). This can lead to unfair judgements and misunderstandings in social and professional settings. It emphasizes the need to consider situational factors before drawing conclusions about someone’s character or abilities. 2. ACTOR-OBSERVER BIAS — Tendency to attribute to our own actions to external factors while attributing others’ actions to internal factors. Example: If we fail an exam, we might blame the difficulty of the question or poor teaching (external factors). However, if a peer fails, we might think they didn’t study hard enough (internal factor). This can create double standards and hinder our ability to empathize with others. By recognizing this bias, we can strive to adopt a more balanced view, considering both internal and external factors in our judgements. 3. SELF-SERVING BIAS — Tendency to attribute to successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to protect our self-esteem. Example: If we succeed in a project, we might take credit of our hard work and intelligence (internal attribution). If we fail, we might blame it on a lack of resources or bad luck (external attribution). This helps maintain self-esteem but can also lead to a lack of accountability and hinder personal growth. Acknowledging our role in both successes and failures is crucial for learning and improvement. 4. JUST-WORLD HYPOTHESIS — Belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve. This leads to victim-blaming, where individuals attribute others’ misfortunes to their actions of characteristics. Example: Assuming that a person who is mugged was careless or a victim of poverty didn’t work hard enough. This can foster lack of compassion and understanding toward those facing difficulties. It underscores the importance of recognizing the complex interplay of factors contributing to life events. 5. FALSE CONSENSUS EFFECT — Tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Example: Believing that most people agree with our political views or that our preferences are common. This can lead to miscommunication and conflict when we assume others think and act as we do. Being aware of this effect encourages open-mindedness and better communication. 6. CONFIRMATION BIAS — Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms our preconceptions. Example: Paying more attention to news stories align with our views and dismissing voice that contradict them. This reinforces existing beliefs and can prevent us from considering alternative perspectives. Acknowledging confirmation bias promotes critical thinking and balanced evaluation of information. COGNITIVE BIASES INTRODUCTION: Cognitive Bias — As a concept was first introduced by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. They are simple mistakes in thinking that happen because our brains use shortcuts to make decisions quickly and these shortcuts can lead us to errors. Example: We might think something is more common that it really is just because we’ve heard about it a lot, or we might keep following a plan that’s not working because we don’t want to admit we made a mistake. Knowing about these biases helps us think more clearly and make better choices. — Cognitive biases are like believing a classmate always gets the highest grades just because you hear about it often. Understanding them is like checking all test scores to see the full picture. ACTION BIAS Why do we prefer doing something over nothing? — It is the tendency to choose action over silence, often to our benefit. However, there are instances when we are driven to take action even in the absence of proof that it will be more beneficial than nothing. — Refers to the tendency to react automatically and by default, even when there isn’t a compelling reason to do so. Occurs: Suppose you’re a soccer goalkeeper, preparing to block a penalty kick in the midst of the final playoff game. If you’re like most goalies, when attempting to stop a shot, you’ll jump either left or right nearly every time. Yet your chances of successfully blocking the kick are statistically greater if you simply stay still. Systematic Effect: This leads society to favor immediate action over careful consideration, often resulting in suboptimal decisions and reinforcing the belief that doing something is always better than doing nothing. This can perpetuate a cycle of ineffective choices and overlook the value of thoughtful inaction. To avoid action bias, try to focus on data and evidence rather than just making decisions for the sake of doing something. Delve into the potential outcomes and consider if inaction might sometimes be the best option. Reflect on your decision-making process and seek feedback to ensure you’re not just acting out of a need for movement. AVAILABILTIY HEURISTIC Why do we tend to think that things that happened recently are more likely to happen again? — Describes our tendency to use information that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions about the future. Occurs: Imagine you are a manager considering either John or Jane, two employees at your company, for a promotion. Both have a steady employment record though Jane has been the highest performer in her department during her tenure. However, Janne’s first year, she accidentally deleted a company project when her computer crashed. With this incident in mind, you decide to promote John instead. Systematic Effect: Acknowledging this forces us to reexamine what we once held true about decision-making. Many prevailing theories in behavioral economics frame humans to be rational choosers, proficient at evaluating information. In reality, each one of us analyzes information in a way that prioritizes memorability and proximity over accuracy. This startling misjudgment in mental capacity means that academics and professionals alike will have to revisit their basic assumptions about how people think and act to enhance to the quality of behavioral predictions. To avoid this, it’s crucial to look beyond what immediately comes to mind. Start by gathering more comprehensive information rather than relying on readily available or recent examples. Check various sources and viewpoints to ensure a well-rounded perspective. Additionally, think about long-term trends and historical data, which can offer a broader understanding and help counteract the bias relying on easily recalled instances. BANDWAGON EFFECT — A psychological phenomenon where individuals adopt certain behaviors, styles, or attitudes simple because others are doing so. It’s a form of social influence where people tend to “jump on the bandwagon” and conform to what seems to be popular or accepted by the majority, often without critically evaluating the reasons behind the trend. FRAMIG EFFECT — A cognitive bias where people’s decisions are influenced by how information is presented rather than the information itself. They way choices are framed—whether in a positive or negative light—can significantly impact decision-making. ATTENTIONAL BIAS — A phenomenon in which people pay more attention to certain types of stimuli. Because we are surrounded by perceptual information, we have to prioritize what we attend to in order to make the most of our limited resources. COMMITMENT BIAS — When we stick to what we did or said in the past, even when we were clearly wrong, and the outcome didn’t turn out well. Also called escalation of commitment, where we remain committed to a course of action, behavior, or belief even when we are wrong and there are negative outcomes. IN-GROUP BIAS — Tendency to favor and prioritize individuals who are part of one’s own group over those from other groups. This can affect decisions, interactions, judgements, often leading to unequal treatment based on group membership rather than individual merit. — Also refers to people’s tendency to favor and give preferential treatment to members of their own group over those who are not in their group. This can manifest in various ways, including: Favoritism — Giving more resources, attention, or support to members of one’s own group compared to those from other groups. Positive Stereotyping — Holding more favorable beliefs or attitudes about members of one’s own group. Selective Memory — Recalling positive actions or qualities of in-group members and negative ones of out- group members. Social Identity — Strengthening one’s own identity and self-esteem through affiliation with the group and its perceived superiority. DRUNNING-KRUGER EFFECT — When people with low ability is a skill overestimating how good they are. They lack the knowledge to see their own mistakes, making them overly confident, while experts are often more aware of their limits. — In school, this effect is like a student who just learned a bit about history thinking they know everything, while students who have studies more realize there’s still a lot they don’t know. HINDSIGHT BIAS — It is where people believe, after an event has occurred, that they predicted or expected the outcome all along. This leads people to see events as more predictable than they actually were before they happened. THREE (3) MAIN COMPONENTS OF HINDSIGH BIAS: 1. Memory Distortion — Individuals often misremember their previous predictions or thoughts, believing they “knew it all along.” 2. Inevitability — People perceive the event as having been inevitable once it has occurred. 3. Foreseeability — They believe that they personally could have predicted the outcome, even if they had no basis for such belief before the event. Why is this a problem that can give us false perception of how good we are at making decisions? Overconfidence in Decision-Making: If we think that we “knew it all along,” we may become overconfident in our ability to predict future events or make decisions. This can lead to poor decision-making in the future since we may underestimate the uncertainty and complexity of situations. Lack of Learning from Mistakes: Hindsight bias can prevent us from learning from our mistakes. If we believe that the outcome was always going to happen, we may not analyze what actually went wrong or what we could have done differently. CONFIRMATION BIAS When only people look for and see information that confirms their own beliefs? — Describes our underlying tendency to notice, focus on, and giving greater credence to evidence that fits without existing beliefs. Where to find: In real life well everywhere. Ex. Two people can look at the same piece of information and interpret it in different ways. And sometimes we are irrational and bias creatures. SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM Self-Concept — The image we have of ourselves. It is influenced by many forces, including our interaction with the important people in our lives. Examples: The hobbies or passions that are important to your sense of identity (e.g. being a sports enthusiast or belonging to a particular political party or religious group). How you feel about your interactions with the world, such as whether you think that you are contributing to society. CARL RANSOM ROGERS Birthday: Jan. 08, 1902 Birthplace: Oak Park, ILLINOIS, United States Known For: Client-Centered Therapy, Fully Functioning Person, Self-Actualization THREE (3) DISTINCT PARTS OF SELF-CONCEPT: 1. Idea Self — The person you want to be. 2. Self-Image — Refers to how you see yourself at this moment in time. 3. Self-Esteem — How much you like, accept, and value yourself contributes to your self-concept. Does self-concept develop? Self-concept is a broad view of who we are physically, mentally, socially, and even spiritually. It is developed over time and we learn to form and regulate our self-concept based on the knowledge we gain about ourselves and through other’s input and feedback. DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-CONCEPT: Self-concept begins to develop in early childhood. This process continues throughout life. However, it is between early childhood and adolescence level that self-concept experiences the most growth. Evolves throughout life and depends to an extent on an individual’s developmental level. Composed of our beliefs, interest, skills, strengths, weaknesses, and what makes us similar to others. Influences our fundamental beliefs about who we are, who we should be, and who we become. Socially constructed throughout our life and influences who we become. Develops, in part, through our interaction and observation of others. In addition to family members and close friends, other people in our community and in the media can contribute to our self-identity. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT: Personal experiences and achievements. Cultural and societal norms. Influence of family and pears. Can Self-Concept Be Changed? Not static, meaning that it can change. Our environment plays a role in this process. Places we are exposed to, especially those that hold a lot of meaning to us. It can also change based on the people with whom we interact. Over time, our self-concept can develop and change, based on our experiences in life and how we relate to people and our environment. Self-Esteem — A crucial part aspect of person’s mental health and well-being. It refers to an individual’s overall sense of self-worth, confidence, and self-respect. Key Reasons Why Self-Esteem is Important: Motivation and Confidence Positive Mental Health Relationship and Social Interactions Life Choices and Decision Making Resilience and Adaptability FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SELF-ESTEEM: Age Gender Religion Childhood Experience Society Media HEALTHY Self-Esteem — Having it can help motivate you to reach your goals because you are able to navigate life knowing that you are capable of accomplishing what you set your mind to. Additionally, when you have it, you are able to set appropriate boundaries in relationships and maintain a healthy relationship with yourself and others. LOW Self-Esteem — You may struggle with confidence. It has the potential to lead to a variety of mental health disorders, including anxiety disorders and depressive disorders. You may also find it difficult to pursue your goals and maintain healthy relationships. Having it can seriously impact your quality of life and increases your risk for experiencing suicidal thought. EXCESSIVE Self-Esteem — Having over high self-esteem t is often mislabeled as narcissism, however there are some distinct traits that differentiate these terms. Individual with narcissistic traits may appear to have self-esteem, but their self-esteem may be high or low and is unstable, constantly shifting depending on the given situation. HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR SELF-ESTEEM: Surround yourself with positivity. Prioritize self-care. Focus on strength. Practice self-compression. Set realistic goals. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM: Essentially, self-concept has more to do with how we think about ourselves, which may be based on experiences we’ve had in our lives and what our beliefs are. Self-esteem has more to do with how we value and view ourselves, which can change and be influenced over time. THE THOERY OF SELF-CONCEPT VS. SELF-ESTEEM: SELF-CONCEPT REÑE DESCARTES ▪ French philosopher, mathematician, scientist who played a pivotal role in shaping the way we view ourselves and the world around us. ▪ He believed that the origin of the self-came from the mind. To him, our mind held the essential components of who we are. Within our minds, we hold our consciousness, understandings, and feelings. ▪ His concept of the self revolves around the idea of Mind-Body Dualism. ▪ “COGITO, ERGO SUM” or “I THINK, THEREFORE I AM” SIGMUND FREUD ▪ Theories of Psychology focus on the self, described three (3) distinct layers of personality: ID (Instincts), EGO (Reality), SUPEREGO (Morality). CARLS ROGERS ▪ One of the Founders of Humanistic Psychology, suggested that there are three (3) components of self- concept: self-image, self-esteem, and ideal self. SELF-ESTEEM The concept was first theoreticized by William James and later influenced by humanistic ideas from various thinkers. One of the famous theories about self-esteem comes from Abraham Maslow. WILLIAM JAMES ▪ Introduced his self-esteem in 1890. ▪ Used a simple formula to define self-esteem — stating that self-esteem equals success divided by our pretentions. Pretentions refers to our goals, values, and what we believe about our potential. So, if our actual achievements are low and our believed potential and goals are high, we see ourselves as failures. ABRAHAM MASLOW ▪ His Hierarchy of Needs is one of the best-known Theories of Motivation. ▪ His theory states our actions are motivated by certain physiological and psychological needs that progress from basic to complex. ▪ Believed that healthy esteem is based on higher- level needs of self-respect and competence. NATHANIEL BRANDEN Believes that six different pillars contribute to a person developing self-esteem. SIX (6) PILLARS OF SELF-ESTEEM: ▪ Living Consciously ▪ Accepting Oneself ▪ Taking Responsibility for An Individual’s Actions ▪ Being Self-Assertive ▪ Living with a Purpose ▪ Having Personal Integrity Nathaniel believes that self-esteem is made up of self-efficacy and self-respect. Self-Efficacy — Confidence a person has to cope with the challenges in life successfully. Self-Respect — The belief that a person deserves happiness and love.