Psychology Chapter 38-41 PDF

Lesson 38.1 **Altruism** 38.1.01 Altruism **Altruism** (Figure 38.1) is defined as unselfish concern or behavior intended to benefit others. Altruistic behavior may even come at the expense of one\'s own well-being or safety. For example, a vampire bat that has been able to feed recently will som...

Lesson 38.1 **Altruism** 38.1.01 Altruism **Altruism** (Figure 38.1) is defined as unselfish concern or behavior intended to benefit others. Altruistic behavior may even come at the expense of one\'s own well-being or safety. For example, a vampire bat that has been able to feed recently will sometimes share blood with an unsuccessful bat that is starving, leaving less blood for itself (an unselfish behavior that decreases its own food supply **Attributional Processes** 39.1.01 Attributional Processes [Attribution theory](javascript:void(0)) states that individuals assign reasons (ie, attributions) for behavior. Often, these attributions are either internal (ie, dispositional) or external (ie, situational). For example, one could blame getting cut off in traffic on internal factors (eg, \"that driver is a jerk\") or external factors (eg, \"that driver couldn\'t see me because of the sun\") (Figure 39.1). **Figure 39.1** Situational versus dispositional attributions. Attributional biases are common cognitive biases that may occur when individuals assign attributions. For example, **self-serving bias** occurs when one\'s own success is attributed to internal factors (eg, A collage of a person riding a bicycle on a road Description automatically generated Chapter 39: Attributing Behavior to Others 217 winning as a result of talent), whereas one\'s own failure is attributed to external factors (eg, losing because of unfair refereeing) (Figure 39.2). **Figure 39.2** Example of self-serving bias. The **fundamental attribution error** occurs when an individual assumes that someone else\'s behavior is the result of internal (ie, dispositional) rather than external (ie, situational) factors. For example, a soccer player decides that another player\'s behavior (eg, committing a foul) was caused by temperament (eg, rudeness), an internal factor (Figure 39.3).  Chapter 39: Attributing Behavior to Others 218 **Figure 39.3** Fundamental attribution error example. An attribution error called the [halo effect](javascript:void(0)) occurs when an individual attributes additional positive qualities (eg, intelligence) to a person with one positive quality (eg, physical attractiveness). For example, when research participants were shown photographs of attractive and unattractive individuals and asked to choose which person was more intelligent, they tended to judge the attractive individuals as more intelligent than the unattractive individuals. Another attributional bias, **actor-observer bias** (Figure 39.4), occurs when an individual attributes another person\'s behavior (eg, cutting someone off in traffic) to internal factors (eg, \"that person is a jerk\") while attributing one\'s own behavior to external factors (eg, \"I am running late\"). A child playing football with a ball Description automatically generated Chapter 39: Attributing Behavior to Others 219 **Figure 39.4** Example of actor-observer bias. Additionally, the **just-world hypothesis** describes a tendency to assume that bad things happen to people who deserve them. For example, an individual who finds out that her friend was diagnosed with a serious illness may assume that her friend did something wrong to deserve the illness (ie, an attributional bias). By perceiving the victim (her friend) as deserving of the misfortune (a serious illness), the individual maintains her belief in a \"just\" (fair) world **Prejudice** 40.1.01 The Contributions of Power, Prestige, and Class in Prejudice **Prejudice** is a preconceived, negative belief or feeling about individuals or groups based on generalizations about their group membership. These beliefs are often not based on experience or evidence but are learned through interactions with others. When individuals are socialized into groups, they learn about differences in behaviors and characteristics between in-groups and out-groups (see Lesson 36.4). Prejudice can be learned by defining groups based on an \"us\" versus \"them\" approach. For example, prejudice can develop between groups who support opposing political candidates, and each group may hold negative attitudes toward one another. In addition, social inequalities (described in Lesson 45.1) and the hierarchical organization of individuals in society based on power, prestige, and class can contribute to prejudice: **Power** is the ability to act based on one\'s own interests to achieve goals without restrictions. Certain careers (eg, politician) and accomplishments (eg, a large social media following) increase one\'s power. **Prestige** refers to the amount of respect one receives based on social position. Certain occupations (eg, physician), personal characteristics (eg, attractiveness), and achievements (eg, winning an Olympic gold medal) confer prestige. **Class** is largely determined by economic resources (eg, income, property). Wealthy individuals are at the top of the social hierarchy, whereas those in the working and lower classes are at the bottom. Individuals and groups with less power and prestige often experience prejudice from more powerful others. For example, the belief that all individuals who live below the poverty line are \"uneducated\" and \"lazy\" is a prejudicial attitude held by some individuals with a higher class position. 40.1.02 The Role of Emotion in Prejudice An individual\'s emotions (see Chapter 24) also play a role in the development of prejudice. When faced with negative emotions such as fear or frustration, individuals often feel stronger connections to their in-group, which can lead to increased feelings of prejudice toward out-groups. For example, during an international war, individuals may develop fear or anger toward the adversary nation, and those emotions can contribute to prejudicial feelings about those who live in that nation (ie, an out-group). 40.1.03 The Role of Cognition in Prejudice Cognition (see Chapter 20) involves higher-order mental processes, including attention, memory, language, thinking, and problem-solving. Some types of thinking and cognitive processes can contribute to prejudice. The brain quickly categorizes things (including people) using **schemas**, which are mental frameworks that organize old information and allow quick processing of new information. This cognitive process can lead to prejudice because people tend to unconsciously and automatically categorize others based on their most obvious social identity categories, including age, race/ethnicity, and gender. For example, when seeing a white-haired man walking with a cane, an individual may categorize the man as \"old\" and assume that he is also \"weak\" and \"frail. **Stereotypes** 40.2.01 Stereotype Threat Similar to prejudice (Concept 40.1.01), **stereotypes** are generalized beliefs about groups of people; but unlike prejudice, which is always negative, stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral. Stereotypes often develop based on limited interactions and/or simplified information and are applied to all individuals within the social group. For example, expecting all people who live in rural areas to be farmers is a stereotype. **Stereotype threat** refers to the anxiety experienced by an individual who feels judged based on a negative stereotype about a group to which they belong. For stereotype threat to arise, the individual must be made aware of their membership in a group that is negatively stereotyped. This awareness arouses vigilance and often results in anxiety that negatively impacts performance. For example, female students perform more poorly on math tests when they are first reminded of the stereotype \"girls are bad at math.\" 40.2.02 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy When an individual belongs to a group that is stereotyped, they may internalize the stereotype. A **self-fulfilling prophecy** occurs when a belief (which may or may not be true) influences behavior such that the belief becomes true. For example, an art major believes he is terrible at math, so he does not study very hard for the math final because he thinks, \"What's the point in trying so hard? I\'m terrible at math and will fail this test no matter what I do.\" Then, his lack of preparation causes him to fail the exam, thus supporting his belief that he is bad at math. The self-fulfilling prophecy phenomenon can be applied to beliefs individuals hold about other people or groups. For example, a teacher believes a student will not perform well in class and therefore pays less attention to the student, who then does poorly in class. 40.2.03 Stigma A **stigma** is any characteristic (eg, laziness, bodily disfigurement) that is devalued and/or labeled as abnormal or unacceptable in society. Stigma can affect an individual's identity (eg, internalization of negative label) as well as how they are treated by others (eg, isolation, mistreatment). For example, some medical conditions, including obesity and lung cancer, are stigmatized because of their association with socially disliked behaviors (ie, overeating and smoking, respectively). As a result, patients with these conditions may experience mistreatment in medical interactions (eg, clinicians may focus on the patient's body weight while overlooking other aspects of the patient's health). 40.2.04 Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism At times, cultural beliefs and practices can be used as the foundation for stereotypes. **Ethnocentrism** is the belief in the superiority of one\'s own culture (Lesson 34.1), which results in evaluating other cultures based on one's own cultural values and practices. For example, an individual judging a cultural group who eats rodents as \"strange\" or \"gross\" because the food differs from their own culture is engaging in ethnocentrism. The opposite of ethnocentrism, **cultural relativism**, suggests that there are no \"right\" or \"wrong\" cultural practices. Cultural relativism advocates examining a culture based on its own context rather than Chapter 40: Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination 222 comparing it to another culture. For example, Muslim women wearing the traditional veil (ie, hijab) is a cultural practice. Judging this practice as \"oppressive\" compared to mainstream U.S. culture is ethnocentric but viewing the practice within the larger context of Muslim culture, without judgment, is an example of cultural relativism. These two approaches to cultural differences have ramifications outside of individual experiences. Ethnocentrism can produce ideas of cultural superiority that can lead to acts of discrimination (see Lesson 40.3) or conflict. On the other hand, cultural relativism can encourage inclusive practices and policies to foster positive interactions between cultural group **Discrimination** 40.3.01 Prejudice and Discrimination **Discrimination** is the unjust treatment of individuals based on their membership in a social group; those who are discriminated against are not given equal access to resources and opportunities. Prejudice (ie, negative beliefs or attitudes about an individual based on group membership as defined in Lesson 40.1) and discrimination are related concepts. For example, an individual may hold prejudice toward women such as the belief that \"women aren\'t good leaders.\" If that individual were to take action based on this prejudice, such as not giving a leadership position to a woman, discrimination has occurred. However, prejudice does not always result in discrimination. Concept 40.1.01 describes how prejudice is formed based on inequalities related to power, prestige, and class. Similarly, acts of discrimination are also shaped by inequalities wherein those with less power and lower social standing (ie, prestige) experience discrimination and thus lack the resources to advance within the social hierarchy. 40.3.02 Individual versus Institutional Discrimination Discrimination can take place at the individual level (ie, one person acts based on prejudice) and at the institutional level (ie, institutional policies/procedures are shaped by prejudice). **Institutional discrimination** is the unjust treatment of specific social groups (eg, racial/ethnic minorities) built into the framework of organizations and institutions rather than held as individual beliefs and attitudes. For example, institutional discrimination occurs when police department policies (rather than individual officers\' decisions) cause resources, such as patrol officers, to be focused on predominantly Black neighborhoods. Institutional discrimination can take place within any institution (eg, schools, hospitals, corporations) and includes actions and policies that are often subtle and/or unintentional but nevertheless cause harm. For example, if employees can only be promoted if they do not take extended time off from work, those who take maternity leave are subtly discriminated against because they are effectively prevented from promotion based on this policy **Group Processes** 41.1.01 Social Facilitation Human behavior can be strongly influenced by social factors, such as the presence of others. **Social facilitation** is defined as an improvement in performance of well-rehearsed or easy tasks in front of a crowd versus when alone. For example, a basketball player who frequently practices free throws in an empty gym may shoot free throws more accurately when there are other people in the gym (Figure 41.1). **Figure 41.1** Social facilitation example. 41.1.02 Social Control **Social control** is the exertion of power by a group, institution, or society to ensure that the behavior of individuals conforms to particular norms (ie, expected behaviors). For example, the physical layout of a grocery store, which is designed so that shoppers will walk in a certain direction and see items in a particular order, exerts social control **Social Loafing, the Bystander Effect, and Deindividuation** 41.2.01 Social Loafing **Social loafing** occurs when individuals exhibit less effort on a task when part of a group than when alone. For example, while working on a group presentation, a group of coworkers puts in less effort than when they prepare presentations individually (Figure 41.2). **Figure 41.2** Social loafing example. 41.2.02 The Bystander Effect The **bystander effect** occurs when people are less likely to help someone in need if other people are around. This phenomenon is related to the *diffusion of responsibility*, which is when individuals assume less responsibility for taking action when they are around others. For example, several people may witness a woman falling in a crowded gym and not stop to help her (Figure 41.3).  Chapter 41: Group Processes and Behavior 226 **Figure 41.3** Example of the bystander effect. 41.2.03 Deindividuation Being part of a large, animated group can increase an individual\'s arousal and lead to **deindividuation**, which is the loss of self-awareness, inhibition, and sense of personal responsibility. For example, a spectator in a large crowd at a football game, feeling energized and with less personal awareness and restraint, may say something he normally would not **Conformity and Obedience** 41.3.01 Conformity **Conformity** is the adjustment of one\'s behavior or thinking to align with that of a group. An individual may conform in an attempt to fit in (ie, belong) or to avoid rejection. For example, a person who dislikes a particular food might eat that food at a party out of a desire to fit in with others who are eating it. Solomon Asch conducted experiments on conformity (Figure 41.4); in Asch\'s studies, participants were asked to pick which comparison line was the same length as a standard line. When alone, participants almost always selected the correct line. However, when with several confederates (ie, actors) who all selected an incorrect line, participants also picked the clearly wrong line over 30% of the time. **Figure 41.4** Solomon Asch's conformity experiment. A group of people sitting at a table Description automatically generated Chapter 41: Group Processes and Behavior 228 41.3.02 Obedience Compliance occurs when one individual modifies their behavior at the request of another individual. For example, a student switches seats when asked to by a classmate. **Obedience** is a type of compliance that occurs when an individual carries out behavior based on the orders of an authority figure (eg, mopping the floor when one\'s manager says to do so). In Stanley Milgram\'s experiments on obedience, the participant was instructed by the researcher (ie, an authority figure) to administer a shock to a learner (an actor) each time they answered a question incorrectly. The shocks increased in intensity with each incorrect response. Milgram found that most people (about 60%) delivered the highest intensity shock to the learner if commanded to do so, even though the final shocks were marked \'\'Danger: Severe Shock\'\' and \'\'XXX **Group Decision-Making** 41.4.01 Group Polarization **Group polarization** occurs when the average attitude or opinion of group members becomes more extreme after group discussion (Figure 41.5). Group polarization is more likely to occur when group members share a similar opinion at the beginning of the discussion. The group opinion may become polarized in either direction (ie, more positive or more negative). For example, a group of donors who support a charitable organization may feel even more favorably about the organization after discussing it with fellow supporters. **Figure 41.5** Group polarization.  Chapter 41: Group Processes and Behavior 230 41.4.02 Groupthink **Groupthink** occurs when a desire to maintain group cohesion (ie, bonds among group members) and reach a consensus outweighs critical decision-making. For example, in a class, several friends are assigned to a group and instructed to choose a position on an issue; the friends have differing opinions on which side of the issue is best but choose one position without much discussion because they do not want to disagree with each other (Figure 41.6). **Figure 41.6** Example of groupthink. A group of people sitting in a classroom Description automatically generated