Social Comparison Theory PDF

Social Comparison Theory Leon Festinger associated with lateral comparisons Objective sources of comparison are rare Social Comparison Theory Insights Drive toward uniformity in groups Comparison to similar others leads to conformity Small groups become more similar over time Downward Soci...

Social Comparison Theory Leon Festinger associated with lateral comparisons Objective sources of comparison are rare Social Comparison Theory Insights Drive toward uniformity in groups Comparison to similar others leads to conformity Small groups become more similar over time Downward Social Comparison People engage in downward social comparison to feel better about themselves. This often occurs when self-esteem is threatened. Example: Comparing grades or job status with someone doing worse. Upward Social Comparison Upward comparisons are made to seek improvement. This can lead to exposure to idealized lifestyles on social media. Consistent upward comparisons can result in a contrast effect. The contrast effect lowers self-esteem. Feelings of inadequacy arise from unattainable standards. Assimilation Effect Choosing a comparison source who is better but deemed attainable can create an This encourages continued effort toward improvement. Value Enhancement Value enhancement combines the desire to feel good with the need for accurate self- People prefer comparison sources where they feel slightly superior. Social Comparison Tasks For objective tasks: compare with dissimilar others. For subjective tasks: compare with similar others. Bystander Effect Definition: People are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present. Help is more likely if a person is alone. Causes of the bystander effect include diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic Social Inhibition Emotional expression can be inhibited in public settings. People may suppress emotions when others are present. Social Loafing Definition: Tendency to slack off in group situations. Some individuals rely on others to do the work. Explanations for Social Inhibition Arousal levels can impact behavior in social situations. Uncertainty about how to behave leads to looking for normative cues. Example: Pluralistic ignorance occurs when individuals assume others' inaction Pluralistic Ignorance Incorrect assumptions about social norms Example: Everyone assumes it's okay to remain silent about inappropriate Misinterpretation of behavior in social situations Example: Students standing outside a classroom, assuming no one has checked Social Inhibition Diffusion of responsibility People feel less compelled to act when in a group. Evaluation apprehension Fear of looking bad or being judged by others. Social Facilitation Definition of social facilitation Performing better in front of others due to physiological arousal. Drive theory Presence of others creates a drive leading to a dominant response. Example: Experienced volleyball players perform well in front of a crowd. Norms Descriptive norms Describe what most people do in a given situation. Example: "83% of Cal Poly Humboldt students recycle." Injunctive norms Prescriptive norms indicating how people should behave. Example: "Good people recycle." Manipulation of Social Environment Impact of social norms on behavior Example: Presence of litter influences people's behavior. West Shultz study Used descriptive norms and emojis to reduce electricity use. Persuasion Techniques Door-in-the-face technique Making a large request followed by a smaller one. Example: Asking to watch a dog for a month, then a day. Foot-in-the-door technique Starting with a small request followed by a larger one. Example: Asking to answer one exam question, then more. Commitment and Consistency Small requests lead to larger commitments. Once committed, individuals feel the need to remain consistent. Example: Milgram experiment starts with small shocks and escalates. Reciprocity principle in persuasion. Example: Original offer of one cupcake changes to two for one dollar. Lowball technique. Participants commit before terms change (e.g., study time at 7 am). Difference from foot-in-the-door technique: lowball changes terms, foot-in-the- Power and Influence Definitions of power. Behavioral control through domination. Power can lead to influence, but not all influential people have power. Minority influence. Minorities can be influential without behavioral control. Raven's bases of power. Resources available on Canvas for learning. Milgram Experiment Findings Unexpected results from Milgram's study. Participants shocked at lethal levels beyond expectations. Cultural norms and obedience. Societal upbringing teaches to obey authority figures. Shift in agency and diffusion of responsibility. Participants blamed the authority figure (experimenter). Enabled them to distance themselves from the actions taken. Engaged Followership Concept explained by Haslam and Reicher. Participants identified with the experimenter as a leader. Engagement in science motivated actions. Example: January 6th insurrection. Actions driven by shared identity rather than direct orders. In-group vs. out-group dynamics. In-group: scientists; out-group: learners in Milgram's study. Normative Influence Conforming to others' expectations for acceptance. Fitting in or seeking safety are primary motives. Dual influences in Asch's line studies. Normative and informational influences observed. Responses under surveillance increase likelihood of normative influence. Weightlifting and Social Influence Discussion about weightlifting and social dynamics. Importance of social pressure versus individual expectations. Normative influence can lead to conformity when surveillance disappears. Types of Influence Normative influence. Leads to compliance; social pressure can outweigh personal beliefs. Informational influence. Motivation to be correct; individuals rely on knowledgeable sources. Example: Referencing Tegan as a source of correct information. Conformity and Dissent Conformity in group settings. Dissent from one individual can reduce overall conformity. Importance of dissent in breaking consensus. Group Polarization Normative influence in group discussions. Individuals may express more extreme views to align with group norms. Example: Sisters demonstrating increasing liberal arguments during discussions. Reflects the phenomenon of out-group comparison. Informational Influence and Argumentation Persuasive arguments theory. Ideas build off each other, leading to more extreme positions. Echo chamber effect. Group members only consider each other's viewpoints. Referent Informational Influence Group identification and self-concept. Influence is based on the group's prototype and attributes. Meta-contrast principle. Highlights differences between in-group and out-group during discussions. Meta Contrast Ratio Definition and significance. Ratio of intra-group similarities to inter-group differences. Calculation of prototypicality within groups. Example of calculating Dakota's prototypicality. Depersonalization Definition: feeling of derealization and not knowing oneself. Identity becomes salient, viewing oneself and others as interchangeable. Predictions about ingroup and outgroup behavior become easier. Ingroup members are seen as prototypical. Outgroup members are depersonalized. Intuitive Groups Attraction to highly intuitive groups when uncertain about self. Intuitive groups have clear norms, guiding thoughts and behaviors. Helps individuals adopt group prototype to form identity. Allows for structured and predictable behavior within the group. Group Polarization Defined by wanting to differentiate from outgroup. Members shift towards more pro-normative positions within the group. Example: Political contexts, such as the Tea Party. Can lead to increased distinction from relevant outgroups. Deindividuation vs. Depersonalization Deindividuation: loss of personal identity and anonymity in crowds. Originated from historical views of crowds as destructive. Depersonalization: gaining a social identity while conforming to group norms. Crowds with purpose lead to predictable behaviors. Riots and Social Identity Riots target specific establishments, like police or government entities. Behavior conforms to norms of the social identity present in the group. Individual differences exist, but conformity to social identity is prevalent. Anonymity does not lead to indiscriminate destruction. Ostracism Definition: ignoring someone to push them out of the group. Mimics physical pain experienced in other circumstances. Affects individuals negatively, causing feelings of separation. Often arises when someone acts deviant within the group. Stages of Ostracism Three stages of ostracism Reflexive: Immediate feelings of hurt and being ignored. Reflective: Techniques to recover from pain, such as self-affirmation and Resignation: When repair isn't possible, leading to depression and feelings of Inclusionary Need Humans are social creatures and need to belong. Ostracism can cause significant emotional pain due to this intrinsic need. Responses to ostracism can be positive or negative. Positive: Increased effort to conform and perform well within the group. Negative: Aggressive attempts to gain attention or prove worth. Norm Enforcement and Derogation Groups derogate norm violators to protect their identity. Ambiguity in group identity leads to negative feelings. The Black Sheep Effect Derogating in-group members more than out-group members due to perceived Dissent vs. Derogation Distinction between dissenters and derogators. Dissenters aim to suggest improvements; derogators criticize the group. Criticism from in-group members is generally seen as constructive. Criticism from out-group members is taken as a threat. Role of Leaders Leaders receive transgression credit due to their prototypicality. They are often given slack for their mistakes. Dissent from leaders is assumed to be in the group's best interest. Dissent must align with core group norms to be acceptable. Influence of Majorities and Minorities Majorities influence by conformity. Members may resolve conflicts by aligning with majority views. Minorities provoke private reflection. Individuals consider minority opinions internally, rather than overtly agreeing. Minority Groups and Messaging Scrutinize the message from majority groups. Cannot overtly comply. Consistency is key for minority messages. Avoid dogmatism; be flexible. Majority groups may need to meet in the middle. Cohesion and Distinctiveness Importance of identity for minority groups. Muddled identities lead to misunderstanding. Example from Dr. Gaffney's protests. Uniformity (e.g., same colored shirts) enhances effectiveness. Processing Majority vs. Minority Messages Majority groups lead to convergent thinking. Follow majority opinion without deep analysis. Minority groups lead to divergent thinking. Analyze validity of minority messages. Consider multiple viewpoints and diverse perspectives. Conversion and Compliance Compliance with majority messages is straightforward. Minority messages prompt deeper thought. Potential for unintentional conversion of related attitudes. Example: Catholic girls in Spain changing opinions on contraception. Perception of Minorities Minorities perceived as non-threatening. Avoid overt compliance to prevent ostracism. Ingroup leniency can affect attitude change. Reminder of upcoming topics: social change and leadership