Group Behaviour & Evolutionary Adaptations PDF

Slides 19: Groupish Tendencies in Humans - Humans display a natural inclination towards "groupish" behavior, forming coalitions and groups that range from social clubs to ethnic and national identities. - Examples of this "groupishness" can be seen in sports teams, youth subcultures (like goth or...

Slides 19: Groupish Tendencies in Humans - Humans display a natural inclination towards "groupish" behavior, forming coalitions and groups that range from social clubs to ethnic and national identities. - Examples of this "groupishness" can be seen in sports teams, youth subcultures (like goth or punk), and territorial bands observed among primates, particularly chimps. Collective Behavior and Sports Hooliganism - Group-oriented actions, such as those observed in sports hooliganism, reflect a focus on one’s own team while often engaging in confrontation with others. - These behaviors are likely rooted in evolutionary drives rather than socioeconomic factors like poverty, suggesting a deeper, intrinsic motivation. Minimal Group Paradigm and In-group Favoritism - The Minimal Group paradigm demonstrates that even random group assignments (e.g., based on coin tosses) can lead to in-group favoritism. - This phenomenon may stem more from an intuition for cooperation than a need to belong, as participants show bias toward in-group members even without real stakes or history. Coalitional Psychology and Evolutionary Benefits - Coalitional psychology posits that humans gain fitness benefits through collective actions, such as pooling efforts and sharing resources. - The drive for collective action, however, encounters the problem of free-riders, individuals who benefit without contributing. Mechanisms of Collective Action Stability - Stability in collective actions is maintained through monitoring participation, signaling commitment, and punishing defectors. - These mechanisms ensure group cohesion by deterring free-riding and encouraging continued participation. Coalition Interests and Group Commitment - In coalitions, group success directly translates to personal benefits, which motivates members to ensure others’ commitment and to penalize those who defect. - Commitment within groups is often signaled through costly actions, such as rituals or sacrifices, which reinforce the individual’s dedication to the group’s well-being. Coalitions as Evolutionary Adaptations - Coalitional psychology presents a framework in which coalitions go beyond social affiliations, driven by evolutionary pressures for cooperation and mutual support. - These psychological adaptations stem from historical contexts of intense group rivalry and the need for cooperation in challenging environments, positioning coalitions as essential to human survival and social structure. Slides 20: Background: Ethnicity - Ethnic groups typically form based on social categories such as language or religion, often with the assumption of common descent and inheritance. Membership is generally by birth and exclusive. Ethnocentrism - Ethnocentrism involves seeing one’s own culture as central or normal while perceiving others as different or inferior. - This perspective has been universal across societies, influencing social and political dynamics. Examples of Ethnocentrism in Other Cultures - Ethnonyms reflect self-perception, with many tribes identifying themselves as “human” (e.g., Miwok, Nahua). - Stereotypes and cultural markers (e.g., cuisine, dress, music) highlight distinctions, with groups often viewing their practices as normal and others as exotic. Ethnicity in the Modern World - Ethnic identity persists in modern, industrial societies, with strong attachment among minorities, sometimes leading to conflict or violence (e.g., Yugoslavia, anti-immigration sentiment in Europe). Essentialism in Social Categories - Essentialism involves the belief that members of a group share a common, underlying “essence” that defines them. - In social contexts, this can lead to assumptions about groups’ inherent qualities and behaviors. Biological Essentialism and Social Essentialism - Biological essentialism attributes specific, inherited properties to living kinds, which people often intuitively apply to social categories as well. - This leads to stereotypes where groups are viewed as fundamentally different due to presumed inherent qualities. Blacksmiths as a Caste in West Africa - Blacksmiths are often treated as a distinct caste, perceived to have unique qualities and subject to stereotypes. - This perception results in practices like endogamy and social restrictions, reinforcing their social separation. How Minorities Are Made “Natural” - Minorities are often perceived as having an internal essence, which is believed to be inherited and expressed through specific qualities (e.g., blacksmiths as “dangerous”). - This perception justifies ostracism, endogamy, and restricted social roles. Derived Essentialism and Social Categories - Essentialist beliefs about social categories may be reinforced by cues suggesting similarity or uniqueness, leading to inferences about group traits. Special Social Categories and Ostracized Minorities - Examples of essentialized minority groups include the Cagots in France and blacksmiths in West Africa, where assumptions of inherent difference lead to social exclusion and suspicion. Limits of Essentialist Explanations - Essentialism does not fully explain negative attitudes such as fear or hatred, nor does it account for cross-group interactions (e.g., intermarriage). - Essentialism may be a factor in group perception, but it does not wholly determine social attitudes or practices. Slides 21: Essentialism About Race and Racial Conflict - Ethnic categorization becomes “racial” when it involves common ancestry, distinct phenotypic traits (e.g., skin tone, facial features), and associated stereotypes. - Racial categories are often unstable, with social criteria for defining race varying over time and by context, as seen in the United States and Japan's Ainu people. The Ainu in Japan - The Ainu, an indigenous minority in Japan, face stereotypes of being “primitive” and are often marginalized in society. - They experience low social mobility, minimal political representation, and cultural assimilation pressures, with many choosing to “pass” as ethnic Japanese. Racial Conflict in Rwanda: Hutu and Tutsi - Rwanda’s ethnic structure includes three “racial” castes: Tutsi (pastoralist elites), Hutu (farmers), and Twa (foragers). - Historical inequality and colonial favoring of the Tutsi led to resentment, culminating in Hutu-led violence during the 1994 genocide. Explaining the Rwandan Genocide - Factors include endogamy norms, occupational restrictions, and stereotypes reinforced by Hutu propaganda that fostered a climate of fear. - The “security dilemma” in failing states, where groups feel threatened and act preemptively, escalated the conflict into mass violence. Can Race Be Erased? - Kurzban’s hypothesis suggests “race” may be encoded as a proxy for coalitional affiliations rather than a distinct category. - Experiments using memory confusion tasks show that coalitional context can disrupt racial encoding, indicating that racial distinctions may be flexible in coalition-driven situations. Ostracism and the “Other” as Danger - Historically, specific social categories (e.g., Jews, certain craftspeople) have been ostracized and restricted to certain neighborhoods. - Ostracism often targets those with perceived “impurity” (e.g., signs of disease, different physical traits), reflecting an implicit belief in contamination through contact. The Concept of Contagion and Xenophobia - Cross-cultural beliefs associate outsiders with contagion, leading to avoidance and restrictions on interaction. - Studies by Faulkner and Schaller show a link between perceived vulnerability to disease and xenophobic attitudes, which increase with disease salience (e.g., through priming with germ-related content).