SOC 300 Real Exam Study Guide PDF

A. NATURE VS. NURTURE Postscript to Macro: What did Inglehart and Baker conclude about Marx v. Weber? Q: Can we quantitatively demonstrate who was better, Marx or Weber? Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values by Inglehart and Baker - Ma...

A. NATURE VS. NURTURE Postscript to Macro: What did Inglehart and Baker conclude about Marx v. Weber? Q: Can we quantitatively demonstrate who was better, Marx or Weber? Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values by Inglehart and Baker - Marx: The economy drives change!!! - Weber: Economics does not change traditional values. Culture is more powerful! - Grounded Theory: using existing data, authors seek to determine which position is correct - Conclusion: somewhere between. There are change-developing societies becomes more rational, tolerant, trusting, and participatory (Marx wins!). However, societies maintain a national character that often has been shaped by religion but is now independent of religion (Weber wins partially!) a. Culture change = path dependent (there is no predictable single way of culture change) b. The secularization theory (religion will decline as societies develop) has limits c. Not all modernization = Americanization d. Modernization is NOT deterministic (it might happen, might not, it might happen in different ways) Nature vs. Nurture: What is at stake in this debate and why does it matter? - If identities are or are not fixed? (e.g. LGBTQ+?) - How about criminality? What if “negative” behaviors are / or are not hard-wired? - If social roles are or are not an extension of biology? Durkheim vs. EO Wilson  Durkheim EO Wilson (all human behavior driven by biological roots) Focused on nurture - Social behavior = born of biological necessity (cooperating to kill prey) - Cultural variation = phenotypic: it is a result of an interaction of the biological blueprint with the environment. It may be more like DNA - Social adaptability = genetic Key points of sources summarized in slides: McDonald, Money, Erhart, Weeks - McDonald: Partible Paternity-Reproduction could also be socially constructed Previous belief: men control women’s reproductive behavior and favor their own children (reproduction = nature-driven) South American Case: men share paternity of sexual partner’s children; children more likely to survive = woman controls reproduction >>>> Is even reproduction socially constructed? - Money and Erhardt: Gender A great deal of gender identity differentiation occurs in the post-natal period when a “pre-programmed disposition comes in contact with socially programmed signals” - Jeffrey Weeks Gay or Lesbian = political terms. Identity is not a destiny, but a CHOICE B. NURTURE William James: psychologist, predecessor of US sociology, broad definition of self (material, spiritual, social) Concept of self - “An individual’s self is the sum total of all they can call theirs” - Material self, social self, and spiritual self CH Cooley- Looking Glass self and primary groups @University of Michigan “Self and Society are Twin Born” - Society does not exist without individuals but individuals also do not exist without society. - You are not even human until you are socialized by other human beings Looking glass- attempt to illustrate the reflected character of the self - “Each to each a looking-glass reflects the other that doth pass”: others become a mirror in which we see ourselves - 3 Elements of the Looking-Glass Self- happens all in one’s head!!, my sense of self comes from how I imagine myself, mirrored by other people a. The imagination of our appearance to the other person b. The imagination of his judgment of that appearance c. Some sort of self-feeling (gut reaction)- could be pride (positive)/ mortification (negative) Primary group: Family, play group of children, the neighborhood - The most important group where the intimate association characteristics of primary groups have had a chance to develop to the fullest: family, play group of children, and neighborhood = practical universal breeding grounds for the emergence of human cooperation + fellowship. - People are drawn away from individualism in this group = We become humane  - Human nature does not come with birth. It can only be acquired through fellowship; it decays in isolation ( Nurture must be reinforced!! If not, people use human qualities decay ) GH Mead: Contrast to Cooley? How does self arise? Definition of reflexivity and generalized other [Quite similar to Cooley- However, Mead is more action based where as Cooley is more about internal thoughts ] What is the Social Basis of Individual Action? - Emphasizes the meaning of external interpersonal gestures and interactions - A person is a personality because they belong to a community Self arises in social experience - By responding to ourselves as others respond to us (observing) + Internal conversation + Participating in a game (learning rules) - Expressing reaction as communication “gestures” - Different selves in different situations - One can become solitary after one is formed, but socialization is necessary for formation (Nurture: one and done- once socialized, forever = human being. ) Self = reflexive - I am able to observe myself (objective self reflection) Generalized others - The attitude of the whole community (students at u of m, students from same high school) Robert Park- how is the self-constituted i.e. shaped? The root word for person means mask: “Everyone is always and everywhere more or less playing a role”/ Roles= determined by occupational status How is self constituted?  - By the individual’s conception of his roles on the social scene and the status accorded to those roles. Erving Goffman- How does Goffman’s Dramaturgy” (On face work) make Park more literal? “Universal human nature is not a very human thing. The person is a kind of construct, built up from moral rules that are impressed on him from without” On Face Work (1959): any human interaction involving two or more people = performative - Our social behavior is composed of acting lines (patterns of verbal and non-verbal acts) that support maintenance of face (positive self-image defined in terms of approved social attributes- image that we are trying to project) - Our attributes and social convention limit those available “lines” and “faces” that we can choose from. (Based on one’s attributes and convention, it limits what we can do and say) Park = role playing wearing a mask / Goffman= more about how social attributes limit “lines” and “faces” Key points of Annette lareau : Different approaches to child rering, based on social class “Concerted (intentional) cultivation and the accomplishment of growth” - Concerted cultivation: parents being very involved in the socialization of their children-upper SES - Accomplishment of growth = more natural, children on their own- lower SES Carol Stack “Domestic Networks” - The strategy of cooperating kinspeople (domestic networks) to maintain family in the face of poverty - “Familism” or “Familialism”; focus on extended family to support and provide for its members  C. CULTURE Know: groups/systems have two dimensions- culture and structure Culture (Definition by Alan Johnson- The Forest and the Trees) - The way we construct reality within a social system, using ideas and symbols (language) to assign meaning. - It is the way we habitually behave in relationship to the meaning we have constructed. 4 Building Blocks of Culture Beliefs - Beliefs do not have to be factual (I’ll believe it when I see it vs. I’ll see it when I believe it) - Truth = fiction are social constructs. (What is considered the truth varies based on groups- i.e. political beliefs) Values (subset of beliefs) - Beliefs that designate what is good/bad, better/worse - It guides choices and how we treat others (Which can be a problem when it is based on identity, not behavior) Norms (subset of values) - Values that are reinforced with social consequences (rewards or punishments) - Society creates “paths of least resistance” ( - Norms can be seen as “functional” (Functionalism: they help society work) - Norms can be a criterion for “membership”/ identity - Norms can be a basis of privilege and stigmatization. (they create and preserve inequalities) Attitudes - Reactions- often with emotional content- based on beliefs, values, norms. High culture vs.Material culture High Culture - Aspects of creative culture (literature, art, cuisine, music) that require specialized knowledge and are typically consumed by upper SES individuals Material Culture - The physical expression of our beliefs, values, norms and attitudes Ethnocentrism (our culture is the best culture) vs. cultural relativism (equally good but different) Solomon Asch (1956): Effects of Group Pressure Group pressure can change our perception of facts, especially when the group is unanimous (united) Unanimous group of 3 is more influential than a majority opinion among 8 When we are in the minority, we respond to the aloneness (or lack of belonging) When we are one-on-one, we maintain objectivity When we are in the majority, we make fun of the minority (or enforce their joining) >> Explains Eco chamber: an environment where a person only encounter beliefs that is the same with their own, so their existing views are reinforced Thomas & Znaniecki: Disorganization of the Polish Immigrant Removing an individual from their subculture can result in significantl altered behavior and personality Polish peasants studied in US did not have a social order through which to redress grievances (complaints) , so they resorted to murder Lisa Wade- American Hookup: Deep in the Fog “It is more than just a behavior, it is the climate” = culture  The norms= pregame>grind> initiate hook up> do something > establish meaninglessness Michael Pollan: America’s National Eating Disorder Our food culture = not stable and orthodox (traditional) as is the cuisine of many other nations We believe that you cannot trust your own taste >> food fadism (unstable and unhealthy): erroneous dietary belief about food i.e. “superfood”, eliminating certain food from diet Capitalism benefits from this Pico Lyer: The beauty of the package packaging=pageantry (elaborate display or ceremony) Difference between Japanese and US culture = japan puts greater focus on the precision with which something is done - Wedding culture. US: feeling=spontaneous / Japan: feeling = elicited by formality D. STRUCTURE-RACE Two-part definition of structure The organization of relationships at all levels of society The distributions (wealth, power, people in various positions) that occur in social relationships Elements of relational arrangements: position and role Social position: the position one holds in a given social system - A social position can be permanent (power) or temporary (being a pedestrian) - The position does not equate to the person - Behavior = may be more of a function of position than personality - Position both empowers and constraints (higher position vs. lower position) - One’s position in a social system has a relationship with all the other social positions in the system Role: the collection of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that apply to a position holder  - The role creates paths of least resistance for the position holder (bc the cultural norms in each system differ, the role also differs based on the culture of each system) - This shapes and influences how we behave - Holding multiple positions in an overlapping social system may create role conflict Role structure - The relationships that link positions or entire systems to one another are the main part of what we think of as social structure. - Every system has a role structure that consists of a mix of social positions and role relationships WEB Du Bois: Color Line, Veil, Double consciousness The souls of Black folk - Color line: socially constructed black/white division that is collective/individual, historical/existential, conscious/irrational (subconscious motivation that keeps the division) - Veil: a sense of being shutout from other race’s experience - Double consciousness: a sense of two identities- Black American: prevents the formation of a unified self (black American living in a dominant white culture but also deviating from being black but not African_ Is race essential or constructed? The Thomas Theorem It does not matter if the interpretation is correct, if people define the situation as real, they are real in their effect. When people view black vs. white as fundamentally different, even though there are technically no biological differences, they are REAL IN THEIR EFFECT - Religion: It does not matter if God is real but people believe it so there is a god The U.S. White Privilege (Allan Johnson: Forest and Trees) The English constructed their beliefs about race in relating to the Irish (We are superior other groups are inferior/subhuman)- It wasn't really about color it was more about some group being particularly inferior compared to others. - This gives an excuse to the privileged group for treating the Irish (inferior) horribly. - This belief was exported to America and used to justify the creation of a permanent African American slave class, meeting the capitalist need for cheap labor (It was very functional in a capitalistic society) Noah’s Curse by Stephen R. Haynes In the story of Noah and Ham, proslavery Southerners found a mythology that explained the divine origin of the American structure of slavery. Ham= bad behaving son of Noah. Noah cursed him and made him lower rank than his brothers. Ham’s descendants = are understood to be black. Therefore, all black people, like Ham, are unruly and scornful. Like Ham, they are designated to be subservient to their fair-skinned brothers. Patricia Hill Collins; The Sexual Politics of Black Womanhood We can still see the imprint of slavery in the social constructions of black womanhood (animalistic) as reflected in pornography, prostitution, and rape rates. William Julius Wilson: The Economic Plight of Inner-City Black Males Structure: Decline in demand for unskilled labor, loss in manufacturing jobs, and a more punitive (corrective) approach by the government Culture: Employer’s negative attitudes towards black males Black male “cool pose” culture and distrust (black males distrust employers) Eduardo Bonilla-Silva: The Strange Enigma of Race in Contemporary America Racism without racists - whites have developed justifications for racial inequality that exempt them from any responsibility. New mechanics of racism: redlining, smiling face discrimination Racial optimists, pes optimists, symbolic racism, group position/laissez-faire racism (consistent stereotyping of blacks + blaming black people for their economic situation) He sees racism in (Marxian) structural terms - Bias by a group against a group (not individuals) - Struggle between the group (white) that has material privilege vs. the group (black) that is materially disadvantaged - He sees each group using its own “racial ideology” to justify (white) or challenge (Black) the status quo E. STRUCTURE-GENDER What was Virginia Woolf’s point? Women need a room of their own !!! Martineau (fashion, which is killing women, is dictated by men) “Dress and its victims” - Talks about how the fashion of her time is killing women- corsets, shoes, women were not covered up enough in the winter, getting sick often. Women are victimized by fashion and the fashion industry is controlled by men. Anna Julia Cooper (African American women can help lead the US forward because of the knowledge gained from their marginalization) Women should be educated like men  Witness oppression: appeal to the public conscience Charlotte Perkins Gilman (women’s economic dependence on men distorts social relations; also examined the interaction of gender and mental health) The Yellow Wallpaper - Women would be happier and healthier if women were outside of the house, doing things other than domestic work- Do not let men control your life - She was isolated at home because of “hysteria” by her doctor husband, and mental illness resulting from the desire to be socially approved for behavior that society did not approve of women. Marianne Weber (examined women in the private sphere, and home, but drew a larger conclusion about patriarchy Used micro-level reality of middle-class women to make macro-level assertions about patriarchy Our identity, and sense of self = predicted based on our economic position in life- similar to MARX!! Jane Addams (hands-on activism, emphasized the importance of social justice rather than blaming problems on the personal morality of the poor) Hands-on activism: Chicago Hull House+Chicago Women’s School of Sociology Democracy and Social Ethics: America must raise moral concerns from the personal to the social (attributing poverty and crime to an individual’s fault is wrong… What is the society doing to influence these individual actions and situations?) Ida B. Wells-Barnett (racism in railroads; lynch laws) Worked against race discrimination in railroads and lynch laws Standpoint Theory Articulated by feminist authors Based on the Marxist assertion that the oppressed class possesses knowledge unavailable to the socially privileged, particularly knowledge of social relations.  Standpoint - the place from which an individual views the world. - Influences how the people adopting it socially construct the world - Social group membership = affects people’s standpoints - All standpoints = partial The Three Questions of modern feminism in examining gender structure Descriptive Questions - What about women? (Description) - In any situation being investigated, where are the women? If absent, why? (Exclusion) - If present, what are they doing? (probable answer: things that are different from, less privileged than, or subordinate to men) - How do they experience the situation? What do they contribute to? What does it mean to them? Explanation - Why is all this as it is? Difference? Discrimination? Structure? Action - How can we make the social world more just for women and all others = action! The social constructionism vs. essentialism Constructionism Essentialism Reality is created and sustained through human Things have an indwelling, essence of identity social interaction - Things have a built-in meaning i.e.) religion explaining things based on the “divine’s will” Nancy Chodorow: Gender Reproduction and the Reproduction of Mothering [social constructionism]  She argues that having a child completes the heterosexual relationship for women, but interrupts the heterosexual relationship for men - These definitions drive the difference in male and female social roles - Women mothing is more than biology and instinct >> It is also a social construct Paula England: Gender Revolution Change in the gender system has been uneven and stalled. - There is no incentive for men to cross into women’s reals but not the other way around Individualism: “I want to get ahead! I want to achieve more” - Has been a plus for women fulfilling their goals Gender Essentialism - Terrible for gender revolution, gender norms = sucks! F. STRUCTURE-SEXUAL IDENTITY What are the three key traditional binaries? #1: Sex (male vs. female) #2: Gender (feminine vs. masculine) - One’s presentation of self in the world -more social) #3: Sexuality or Sexual orientation (straight vs. gay ) Why does vocabulary about gender and sexuality shift? Because we are describing “socially constructed” categories and because our understandings of the diversity of human experience grow > vocabulary continues to shift about things related to sex, gender, and sexuality What have been the key shifts since 1850 in viewing sex (from moral, legal and medical vantage points) Moral (in the 1850s)  - Sex was viewed as a behavior (not an identity) - The decision to have sex with people in some categories (your spouse) was seen as a virtuous decision and a reflection of good character - The decision to have sex with people in other categories (prostitute, your best same-sex friend) was seen as a moral failing Legal (1850s) - 18th/ Sex with the wrong partner was seen as an offense against society, but it was seldom prosecuted if there was no public conduct “Dont ask don't tell” - 19th/ criminalization/enforcement of criminal sexual behaviors (prostitution, homosexuality) - 20th/ sex= identity, not a behavior, decriminalization of sexual behaviors Sex and Medicine - 18th/ abnormal sexual behavior believed to produce medical symptoms - 20th/ abnormal sexual behavior is seen as an illness that needs to be cured - 20th/ sex is seen as the expression of an indwelling identity, seldom requiring treatment - Early 21st/ sex = interpersonal transaction that can be medically enhanced In sociology, what is the difference between “lesbian/gay studies” and “queer theory?” Gay = affirms a specific sexual identity, cultures Queer = opposing normative sexual identities - ANTI IDENTITY - “Maintaining a relationship of resistance to whatever constitutes the normal” Judith Butler's “Performativity” Heterosexuality is too “performance” and it becomes impossible to say which sexuality mimics which. - People have “performed” heterosexuality, and the current generation mimics the performance > heteronormativity (It also applies to any other sexuality!)  “gender proves to be performance— constituting the identity it is purported to be.” - The idea that social reality is created through symbolic signs, gestures, and language G. STRUCTURE-CLASS What are PEW research key points about economic inequality in the US? Income inequality - Over the past 50 years, the highest-earning 20 percent of U.S. households have steadily brought in a larger share of the country’s total income - Income inequality in the U.S. is the highest of all the G7 nations. - The black-white income gap has not been resolved - Overall, 61 percent of Americans say there is too much economic inequality in the country today, but views differ by political party and household income level. - The middle-class income grows at a slower rate whereas high-income grow faster Wealth inequality - The wealth gap between America’s richest and poorest families more than doubled. What is social stratification? Categorization of people into a group based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education…etc. Its hierarchy causes certain privilege How to do Marx’s view on class stratification Our structure is bourgeois, and proletariat- bourgeoisie runs the society and the societal structure helps to maintain bourgeoisie’s money” Weber on class stratification Structure of our society has a lot to do with class, marx is correct but we also need to talk about status and party! Bourdieu view class stratification?  Yes it is about capital (class) but there are other kinds of capital that people have control of other than economic capital such as - Social capital (connection in society ) - Culture capital (knowing about fine art, knowing how to golf, know wines…) - Symbolic capital (prestige- like the mayor of Ann Arbor, religious figure) Davis and Moore “Straficiation and Functional Requirements of Society” - Functionalism Social inequality unconscious, evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are conscientiously (responsible way) filled by the most qualified persons” Herbert J. Gans “Use of the Underclass in America” The notion of underservingnness survives in part because of the positive functions it has for the better-off population. - Rich people benefit from poorer people by (charging them lower wages…etc) Julie Bettie “Women without class” Created a typology of high school women who performed different versions of femininity linked to their class and race performances. The class was highly determinative but not explicit - White: preps, staker, hicks, smokers - Mexican Americans: mexican preps, las chicas, cholas/os Stanley Eitzen “Upward mobility through sport?” NO Myths - Sport provides a free education - Sports leads to a college degree, etc. Lisa Dodson “Employing parents who can't make a living” The moral dilemma of supervisors who know their entry-level employees aren't making a living wage and what those supervisors do in response