Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War PDF

Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War Readings 8.pdf PDF Document 80,6 MB session 8.pdf PDF Document 1014.0 KB Reims 24-25 - LENC - Session 8 - Lecture to be sent.pdf...

Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War Readings 8.pdf PDF Document 80,6 MB session 8.pdf PDF Document 1014.0 KB Reims 24-25 - LENC - Session 8 - Lecture to be sent.pdf PDF Document 4,4 MB History - Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War Flashcards Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like What does the comprehensive n https://quizlet.com/fr/960884514/history-slavery-resistances-abolition-us-civil-war-flash-cards/?i=2h1xm7&x=1jqt ‌ ‌ a Slavery: a comprehensive system. Comprehensive comprises the globality and complexity of the system Philosophical and political (internal & external) matters intervened but also economic and industrial, social and cultural ones. (Session 6 1848 onward: uprisings, revolution and counter-revolution) A system based on pure violence. Violence at the heart of this session 8: Consubstantial with the very idea of slavery; implicit in the work about slavery. Used in the service of or against abolition. During the US Civil War. Afterwards, strong legacy. Slavery an old phenomenon: Ancient time. Middle Ages and serfdom. Development of European empires (Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, France…). “Triangular trade” (Europe → Africa → America → European ports)– Long, risky but profitable. Olivier Grenouilleau, Les Traites négrières. Essai d’histoire globale, Paris, Gallimard, 2004. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, Les routes de l’esclavage. Histoire des traites africaines, VIe-XXe siècle, Paris, Albin Michel / Arte Editions, 2018. Second half of the 18th century: idea of abolitionism. We will mainly consider Portugal and Spain, the Netherlands, Great Britain and France. But remember, enslaved people also in other countries: (Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire, Arabic peninsula. Africa itself. Etc.) An essential economic dimension : slavery is a key element in economic development. Portuguese and Spaniards in South and Central America exploitation of mineral resources (gold, silver). Colonial system, could it work without the use of enslaved people?. Plantation complex in the United-States, from the 16th century, slaves were essential for these plantation complex: Tobacco, coffee and sugar. Cf. James Walvin, Sugar: The World Corrupted, from Slavery to Obesity (London: Robinson, 2017). But in the Southern states, cotton became essential in the building of the economic supremacy of the Northern part of the US and the development of European industries; created economic circulation; “King Cotton”. Economic circulations and economic / industrial developments. Books: Edward E. Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told... Douglas R. Egerton et alii, The Atlantic World... Edward E. Baptist, Creating an Old South: Middle Florida's Plantation Frontier before the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton. A Global History (New York: Vintage, 2012). About the relationship between slavery and the creation of American capitalism, and about the new history of capitalism. Sven Beckert and Seth Rockman (eds.), Slavery’s capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development (Early American Studies) (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018). Nicolas Barreyre et Alexia Blin, « A la redécouverte du capitalisme américain », Revue d’histoire du XIXe siècle, 2017/1 n°54, p.135-148. The social dimension of the system based on slavery. Plantation labour and long distance trade created a new sequence of contacts and patterns of differentiation. Led to the creation of a specific organisations with its code and regulations. This is the case for example of the The French “code noir”: A royal edict prepared by Colbert and published in 1685. 60 articles regulating the life of the enslaved people and their relationships with their masters. Under the guise of protecting and regulating, the harsh confirmation of an awful condition. A world of control, terrible sanctions, and fear. /!\ France was not the only country to edict such a code. A world that was strictly organized : masters, servants, homemaids, planters… A world of harsh brutality and violence. A specific culture of their own. Despite all that was inflicted on them. Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977). People in the US knew about the terrible conditions inflicted on the enslaved people. How? 100 000s enslaved people had been used in Spain and in Portugal (16th, 17th and until the mid-18th century). Triangular trade also led to a circulation of information. Testimonies told and written by former enslaved people. Olaudah Equiano: autobiographical story published in 1789. Frederick Douglass. Resistances, revolts, self-liberation. The enslaved people never accepted their fate and endeavoured to reject it as often and as much as possible. Resistances of slavery but direct consequences. Development of a repressive force throughout the years became more and more important/terrible and costly. Resistance v. Repression was weakening the “idealized” perspective of slavery (“better to be enslaved rather than working in mines”) Jean-Pierre Le Glaunec, “Résister à l’esclavage : aperçu historiographique, hypothèses et pistes de recherche”, Revue d’histoire de l’Amérique française, n°1-2 (2017), p.13-33. James Walvin, Resistance, Rebellion & Revolt: How Slavery Was Overthrown (London: Robinson, 2020). Aline Helg, Slave no more... Main forms of resistance: Refusal / lack of commitment to work. Poisoning or assassination of the masters Refusal to give birth as the baby would take the statute of the mother (enslaved). Suicide (loss of money for the master). Escape - Possible formation of maroon societies in remote places. Revolts and even insurrections: systematic repression; leaders were mercilessly slaughtered, put to trials by masters Makandal and, later, Boukman in Saint-Domingue. Nat Turner in Virginia – William Styron’s Confessions of Nat Turner (1967). Cultural resistance: Survival and evolution of African culture : did survive and evolved over centuries. eg. Creole language. Excellent mean to communicate without being understood by the masters Meaningful – even if usually not successful – insurrection. Important part of the broad refusal of slavery for the enslaved people & for the people who participated in the abolitionist mvt. It was born in the colonial metropolis in the 18th century. Revolution in the Caribbean From Enlightenment to revolutions to political debates in Europe to abolitions. Abolitionism. movement to end slavery; be it formal or informal. Emancipation. process of giving people social and / or political freedom and rights. From religion and Enlightenment to Revolutions. Religious beliefs The first abolitionists were the American Quakers , who started to emerge at the end of the 17th century. They put forward the idea that slavery was incompatible with the spirit of Christianity. They created an important distinction between the trade of slaves and the concept of slavery. This distinction would persist and be extremely important all along the 19th century. During this period, in Great Britain and to a lesser degree in the Netherlands, some evangelical protestors took position against slavery. The main driving force of their abolitionist perspective was rooted in religious beliefs. Philosophical grounds During and after the Enlightenment of the 18th century, a certain number of philosophers picked up the issue and firmly condemned slavery because it’s a phenomenom that violate natural laws. In France for example, whatever the divergences of considerations on the effectiveness of the colonies, Rousseau, Condorcet, Raynal and Voltaire all took a firm stance against slavery. They considered that slavery violated both morals and natural laws. Economic considerations In the 1760s, some economists (mostly liberals and French physiocrats) began to condemn slavery as less efficient than free work, and thus as a system that was hindering economic development. For them, it was the slave system as a whole that was not efficient – they were not really concerned about slaves themselves as human beings. Little by little, the religious, philo and literary movements had a growing influence on public opinion During the Second half of the 1770s France, Great Britain and USA, slaves necessary for the economy. But creation of anti-slavery societies. Great Britain, 1788-1789 petitions demanding debates in parliament about slavery; France, 1789 the issue of slavery was registered in some grievances. The American revolution & limits From the very beginning, slavery was a controversial issue in the young America. Some States banned slavery from as early as 1777 (mainly in the North), whereas others defended it due to economic benefits (mainly in the South). This division amongst the North and the South on the issue of slavery was an important impediment to the issuing of a federal constitution. Eventually, a compromise was found to complete the constitutional process. January 1, 1808, a general law forbid slave trade, but slavery remained authorised. The French Revolution & limits Revolutionary France was the first to officially ban slavery, notably through the actions of Mirabeau and Condorcet , Olympe de Gouges. The question of slavery during and after the revolution unfolds in three steps: September 28, 1791 abolition of slavery in France February 4, 1794 the Convention abolishes slavery. May 1802 Bonaparte reinstated slavery. Some great moves in both BUT return to status quo to some extent. Political debates and slow progress in Europe. Three names: 1. William Wilberforce (1759-1833): parliamentary means: English politician, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to eradicate the slave trade. 2. Victor Schœlcher (1804-1893): polemist means: French abolitionist writer in the 19th century and the main spokesman for a group from Paris who worked for the abolition of slavery, and formed an abolition society in 1834. He worked especially hard for the abolition of slavery on the Caribbean islands, notably the French West Indies. 3. Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865): parliamentary means: American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis. In doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Three debates between : About abolition: between abolitionist or proponents of slavery Among abolitionists: between a gradualist or immediate abolition About abolitionism: between those considering it as a political movement and those who viewed it as a moral movement Great Britain If Revolutionary France had targeted the abolition of slavery, British abolitionists thought that the banning of slave trade was a much better idea. Because it was not threatening the slave owners in the colonies, and because slave trade was becoming less profitable. They used very efficient methods: British parliamentarian William Wilberforce’s anti-slavery moves were first driven by religious ideas, but after seeing the realities of the living and working conditions of slaves on the boats and in the fields, he engaged fully into a moral, religious and ethnic combat. It must however be noted that these British abolitionists were initially very few in number, even if they had the support of William Pitt the Younger and William Grenville. cf. Amazing Grace movie (2006). It is a good way to go back to the British abolitionist process in the first decades of the 19th century. Amazing Grace is a 2006 British- American biographical drama film directed by Michael Apted, about the campaign against slave trade in the British Empire, led by William Wilberforce, who was responsible for steering anti-slave trade legislation through the British parliament. The title is a reference to the hymn “Amazing Grace”. The film also recounts the experiences of John Newton as a crewman on a slave ship and subsequent religious conversion, which inspired his writing of the poem later used in the hymn. Newton is portrayed as a major influence on Wilberforce and the abolition movement. February 1807 A law banning slave trade was passed. The law of 1807 was only just the beginning, and the banning of slave trade had to be imposed on other nations. In this perspective, Great Britain signed 28 treaties in 33 years, which concerned the banning itself and the suppression of fraud. However, limiting fraud and encouraging other nations to ban the slave trade was made all the more difficult by the fact that the banning had made slave trade more profitable again. However, little by little and thanks to a very powerful navy, London managed to impose its control and to reinforce its hegemony on sea and land. Following 1807, Britain became the leader of the abolitionist movement. More and more people were signing petitions and were concerned about the issue. The banning of slavery as a whole followed different steps: 1815 The Congress of Vienna. Votes the first international disapproval of slavery. 1818 The Congress of Aix-La-Chapelle. France is reintroduced on the European chessboard, and the banning of slavery is officially proclaimed by 5 countries (the UK, Prussia, Russia, France and Austria). Some positive measures to improve the living and working conditions of the enslaved people. But in its own West Indies colonies, the United Kingdom’s government implemented harsh repression to improve the living and working conditions of the slaves. /!\ However, in 1830, there were still 650 000 slaves in the West Indies. Some religious people kept fighting alongside the liberal against slavery. There were also antislavery societies and even Ladies’ associations that boycotted products produced by slaves. Those campaigns were quite successful. August 1, 1833, the House of Commons abolished slavery in the British Empire. Landowners received compensation in terms of money (half the value of their former slaves). For their parts, slaves had to enter apprenticeship for seven years. They had to work three quarters of the day for their former masters. This did not include children under 6 of age, who were directly freed. This means that the complete and definitive emancipation was only achieved by January 1838. France When Napoléon I came back to France during what is now known as the Hundred Days, he decided to ban slave trade. This move was mainly motivated by a will to please Great Britain, but it wasn’t very successful if we consider the political and military events that followed – that is to say the Battle of Waterloo. That banning was confirmed by the Treaty of Paris of November 1815 and by an ordinance signed by King Louis XVIII in January 1817. But the smuggling kept going until 1827 when real and serious measures were finally taken. Under the July Monarchy, some fierce debates took place. Those were debates between the people who wanted to modernize the Black Code of 1685 and the abolitionists who were becoming little by little more efficient, numerous and stronger. The living and working conditions of slaves were improved. In 1839 civil status was given to slaves and in 1843, slavery was abolished in Mayotte. The issue of slavery really heated up in France with the revolution of 1848. Victor Schœlcher had fought for 20 years as a journalist against slavery. In the provisional government formed in February 1848, he was named Under-Secretary for Marine and colonies. He contributed to the signing by all members of a decree abolishing slavery in the french colonies, in March 1848. The banning of slavery in all French lands was inserted in the Constitution (Chapter 2, article 6) of 1848. Rest of Europe Denmark: first to officially abolish slave trade (1792). Britain: 28 treaties notably involving European countries. The Netherlands (1863), Portugal (1869) and Spain (1880): the last ones. Latin America The abolition of slavery was also linked to the conquest of independence in Latin America. At first, there were great divisions between independantists (In favor of slavery but they changed their minds quickly) and abolitionists. But eventually, slaves aspirations were used by the people who were fighting for independence to reinforce their claims. (Simon Bolivar, Carta de Jamaica) Book: Douglas R. Egerton, Alison Games, Jane G. Landers, Kris Lane, Donald R. Wright, The Atlantic World… 1850s abolition adopted by most European countries and Latin America. Further tension and tightening of the grip over the enslaved within the old South of the US. The US case. The main idea is that from June 1788 (ratification of the American constitution) to April 1861 (beginning of US Civil War), slavery was a permanent and poisonous issue. Of course, there was the law of January 1, 1808 forbidding slave trade , but smuggling kept going and slave owners endeavoured to adapt to the new situation. They started to consider their slaves as capital. Some of them decided to organise the breeding of slaves, selecting stallions and reproducing females. The main States engaging in such practises were Virginia, Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri. This went hand in hand with a beginning of unrest amongst the slaves – periodically there were revolts, all of them violently crushed. Nat Turner (1831): Turner’s story. He was a slave who made an attempt to rebel. Along with fellow slaves they massacred 60 people, but they ended up being caught (The confessions of Nat Turner, 1967). Otherwise, the slaves tried to escape and flee north. Starting in 1815, the ‘ Underground Railway ’ was established by freed slaves and white people in order to help slaves to the North of USA and to Canada. Harriet Tubman (1822-1913): freed slaves, became an abolitionist and endeavored a political involvement to combat the cause Book: Eric Foner, Gateway to Freedom... Scholars consider that the American enslaved people: more agency towards the abolition process. Reaction of the owners of enslaved people. In 1850, a federal law was passed that obliged the police to participate in the chasing of slaves who tried to escape. All along the 1850s, the tension kept growing. The problem was that there were two very different United States of America: 1. The South In the South (2 Carolinas, Missipi, Louisiana, Texas, Alabama, Georgia), there was what is known as the ‘ King Cotton ’, thanks to the industrial revolution in England and the rest of Europe. Cotton was at the centre of economic activity. In 1860, among the 12,5 M inhabitants of the 15 states of the south, there were 4 million slaves (1/3). They were working for 75% in agriculture, 10% in the mines and 15% as domestic workers. The rise of price of the enslaved people prevented slave owners from acquiring better machineries; nearly no diversification. Landowners also limited the development of the middle classes. 2. The North In the North, the situation was different. There, the industrial revolution fully took place (textile, then metalworking companies). In 1860, the factories of the North represented 90% of the manufacturing production of the US (huge discrepancy with the South in terms of industrialization). An active policy from the federal state made the economy grow quickly , and the middle classes with it. A certain number of cities expanded , and between them, networks of communications grew too. Thanks to migration, the population kept growing. A series of campaigns developed in the Northern states in favour of education, women’s emancipation, against alcohol abuse, against harsh treatments on mentally disabled people and detainees. Among them also developed a campaign for the abolition of slavery. /!\ In the beginning, those abolitionists were very few, because a large majority of people did not really care about the blacks. They were also divided between partisans of immediate emancipation and progressivists. There was also a problem about what to do with the slaves: send them back to Africa or keep them in the US? There was a slow development of abolitionist movements notably through anti-slavery movements. This had two main consequences: The South reinforced its grip on slaves Tense debates between North & South started to emerge on the United States’ political stage (John Calhoun, Slavery : A Positive Good). With the whole pursuit of Manifest Destiny and the conquering of the West, a new issue emerged: the status of the new States progressively conquered in the West had to be decided. Would they be free States or slave States? Of course, the decision would have huge consequences on the balance of power between the north and the south. cf. This is the issue around which John Brown made his reputation cf. Music of the Session The US Civil War and its echoes in Europe Philosophy and revolutions – Politics – War. The US Civil War: quite fascinating a conflict. Book: Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering… Book: James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom… Book: James McPherson, The War that Forged a Nation… David Blight’s numerous books. Drew Faust’s other books. Path to belligerence During the 2nd half of the 1850s, two events increased tensions between the South and the North. May 1854 Kansas-Nebraska law mandated “popular sovereignty”–allowing settlers of a territory to decide whether slavery would be allowed within a new state’s borders. Proposed by Stephen A. Douglas –Abraham Lincoln’s opponent in the influential Lincoln-Douglas debates. The bill overturned the Missouri Compromise’s (1820) use of latitude as the boundary between slave and free territory. The conflicts that arose between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers in the aftermath of the act’s passage led to the period of violence known as Bleeding Kansas , and helped paved the way for the American Civil War. 1857 US Supreme Court decision Dred Scott v. Sandford  Dred Scott was a slave, but followed his master to the North where slavery was forbidden. He demanded emancipation. The Court held that "a negro, whose ancestors were imported into [the U.S.], and sold as slaves", Whether enslaved or free, could not be an American citizen and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court, and that the federal government had no power to regulate slavery in the federal territories acquired after the creation of the United States. The Supreme Court stated the Missouri compromise violated the Constitution as it deprived the slave from his belongings without the possibility of recourse to justice. Court also ruled that Congress lacked power to ban slavery in the U.S. territories. The decision was only the second time that the Supreme Court had ruled an Act of Congress to be unconstitutional. The birth of the American judicial review of legislation: Marbury vs. Madison 1870s: minimum consensus was gone for good One of the main consequence of the political turmoil was the creation in 1854 of a new party. The Republican Party , that regrouped the various adversaries of slavery. The programme was rather simple: land for free, and without slaves in the West, high tariffs to protect the young American industries and the building of a transcontinental railroad. Abraham Lincoln became more and more influential. He had the reputation of being firmly against slavery, but not a radical who would quickly launch the process for immediate and complete abolition. At the presidential election of November 1860 , Lincoln won 19 States (only 38% of the global vote). He defeated two democrats in favour of slavery. Breckinridge (11 States) and Douglas (30% of the votes and no states). He also defeated Bell (won 3 states). On March 1861, Lincoln was sworn in. But since his election, things had accelerated. His support was mainly based in the North and the West. Considering that Lincoln’s election was a threat for the system on which the old South was built. December 1860 South Carolina had seceded January 1861, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas seceded too. February 10, 1861, Jefferson Davis was elected provisional president of the Confederation of American States (constituted by the Southern States that had seceded). April 12, 1861, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas joined the Confederation. Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri remained faithful to the union thanks to Lincoln. War is on and in spite of the hopes in both camps, it would be a long and bloody war. End november 1860 - spring 1861: process of secession A long and bloody War The two forces in opposition were: The confederation of the South Made up of 11 States, under the presidency of Jefferson Davis. He had a lot of political experience and was not a partisan of compromises. He would have to negotiate all along the war with the states to abandon some prerogative in favour of the confederation. There was growing political instability inside the Confederation. Union Laws were maintained in the Confederation, but if necessary some were modified. March 11, 1861, The constitution of the Confederation recognised slavery but maintained the banning of slave trade. The economy was less powerful than that of the North. In total, the 11 secessionists had a population of 9 million among whom 3,5 million were enslaved. The rest of the union had 23 million people. The military tradition, the enthusiasm to defend the homeland and the desire to protect the old way of life meant most military leaders joined the Confederation. The aim (and need because of the discrepancies) was a quick and decisive victory. The Union of the North In Washington DC, Lincoln experienced a tough beginning. At first, the man was able to avoid the secession of the 7 last States. However, he lacked political experience at the highest level, and was challenged within his own party. He formed a majoritarian republican cabinet. In his eyes, the defence of the Union (not the abolition of slavery) was the main goal to secure. This is how he managed to avoid the secession of Kentucky etc. and provoked the secession of West Virginia as a free state in 1863. He managed to mobilize all the resources (both industrial and agricultural), slowly but systematically. Anaconda Strategy. He fully supported the implementation of a long-term strategy, as he knew the South was stronger. The aim was to strangle the South, by establishing a blockade on the Sea and blocking the Mississippi River. Diplomacy The Confederation had 2 main assets: 1. “King Cotton”. The French and British asked for Cotton. 2. Legal asset: by establishing a blockade, the North had de facto recognised the South as a nation, which would thus establish a diplomatic relation with other States in Europe. Great Britain and France would especially be the diplomatic allies of the South. In both of the countries, people were divided between economic considerations (cotton, trade etc.) and moral considerations (emancipation and freedom). Some also argued that the South should be left to decide itself whether it wanted to abolish slavery or not. Napoléon III thought that the division would facilitate his policy in Mexico and the creation of an Empire in Latin America, so at the beginning he was in favour of the Confederation. But France would not do the decisive move without Britain. cf. Illustration: Farid Ameur, “Les Français dans la guerre D’amerique”. As a result, no real diplomatic decisions were made in the first 2 years from Europe, but economic exchanges still took place between Europe and the South (Confederacy). The War can broadly be divided in three big periods. 1. 1861- 1862 The armies of the Confederation always avoided military disaster, but they failed to inflict a decisive blow On the Union side, despite setbacks and protests, Lincoln kept looking for the general that would make the difference on the battlefield. He mobilized resources of the State under his authority. In June 1862, the Union conquered New Orleans: this was a strategic victory, as it opened the way to the Mississippi river, which was important for the Anaconda strategy. Time was beginning to play for the union. Cotton supply of European industries in trouble. Bankruptcies. Rise of unemployment. Need to find / create new supply. Reorganisation of the economic system established around cotton. Thanks to good generals (Jackson –‘Stonewall’, Robert E. Lee ), in the South resistant troops achieved complete mobilisation of the economy and managed to hold against the North. 2. The year 1863 was decisive year for 3 reasons: On the battlefield, Union armies won at Gettysburg on July 1. After three days, Lincoln had to retreat his armies, but it was still a victory. But the victory at Vicksburg in May/June 1863 was more important, as it enabled the conquest of the Mississippi. At Vicksburg, Lincoln finds Ulysses S. Grants , the general he had been looking for. Lincoln announced emancipation for all slaves in September 1862. Abraham Lincoln, Reply to Emancipation It would be a tool and a means to achieve victory. It was implemented on January 1, 1863. From there on, the war to defend the union transformed into a war against slavery. Slavery was finally abolished by the 13th amendment on January 31, 1865. Diplomacy: progresive but irresistible shift to the North. In November 1863, Napoleon suggested an armistice between the two sides, but in vain. The reason for these failures was that the North was gaining more and more support because of emancipation stance and victories on the field. 3. 1864-1865 During these 16 months, the South struggled to avoid complete defeat. Still a combative South. The soldiers knew they were fighting with their backs against the wall. General T. Sherman’s “March to the Sea” took place from May 1864, from Chattanooga to the ocean. That was a devastating raid in the heart of the confederation. A series of bloody battles took place in May and June 1864. These battles led to the retreat of Confederation armies and to the siege of Petersburg. In April 1865, there was a breakthrough of Union armies, and on April 9, 1865 , the unconditional surrender was signed by the Confederation. A transitional war Modern war The fighting took place everywhere : on land, in the air and in the sea. It provoked some technical improvements. Railways transported supply and troops. Guns were modernized. The idea was to improve the range of riffles (multiplied by four). It also meant the creation of on sea ironclad warships, submarines and mines. Balloons were used to watch the enemy and direct the guns. Both sides regularly used guerrilla fighting. Black soldiers, following the proclamation of emancipation, began to serve in the Union Army. Classic In terms of medicine and surgery it was a mess, even if there was a bit of improvement. There were very few ambulances on the field, no knowledge about fighting against infections and camp illnesses and infections killed more soldiers than war wounds. The main techniques used were very classical, including propaganda and spies. Furthermore, the terrible faith for prisoners of war, especially in the camps held by the confederation illustrates the very ‘barbaric’ nature of the conflict, which was nowhere near modern. In terms of strategies and tactics, it was still Napoleonic precepts that were used; very creative. Those included quick moves to achieve surprise and sending troops in tight formations. When they changed their tactics, they fostered the tranches – not such an improvement in strategy. There were also monstrous losses (620 000 dead in total). There were more dead provoked by the US Civil War than by all other wars the US has participated in since 1877 (Korea, Vietnam etc.) A total war? In a way it was total, because women participated in it, and the aim was unconditional surrender and if necessary destruction of some parts of the enemy’s lands and possessions. Nevertheless, other features of total war were missing: In the North, the economy was not totally mobilised by the war. There was no ideological mobilisation. There was not the idea of completely eliminating the enemy (ex: Nazis). This is why McPherson says “a classic war that degenerated into a close to being total war”. Coming out of war At the individual and political point of view, this is a topic in itself (ex: Eric T. Dean, Shook over Hell). What can be noted at the collective level is that: Economy There was much more destruction in the South – all the economic infrastructure was destroyed. On the other hand, the Union emerged considerably stronger from the war. Army and demobilization The Union army was in charge of restoring law and order. 200 000 soldiers were involved in restoring laws in the South. They did it in an efficient and moderate way. The rest of the troops were demobilised. The army did not try to play a political role. Sherman for example was asked to get involved in politics but he refused. About slavery: The Civil War ended the practice of slavery: 1. 13th amendment in 1865, abolition of slavery is integrated in the Constitution 2. 14th amendment civil rights given to former slaves 3. 15th amendment right to vote given in 1870 The new President, Andrew Johnson was caught between radical republicans and southern hatred. He did not have Lincoln’s political weight. He was caught between moderation and firmness. All former Confederate States had reintegrated the union by 1870. In 1877, federal troops had left the former Confederation (end of the Reconstruction). But the problem was that from 1877, the States had the right to establish the legal framework of the relations between blacks and whites. That provoked the beginning of racial segregation in the South. The end of the civil war did not mean the end of the hardships faced by enslaved. Racism would survive, and fighting kept going on. It was only in 1926 with the creation of the SoN that the issue of racism was dealt with, and in 1948, the Universal Declaration of the Human Rights , article 4, banned slavery in all its forms. Many consider US civil war as the Second birth of the USA. It is a war that finally transformed the US in a nation, and no longer a gathering of States. It still holds an important role in collective and individual memories. Elements of conclusion on the longer term For David Blight , The 1st American Republic was torn apart by the issue of slavery and destroyed by the Civil War leading to the emergence of the 2nd version of the Republic. For many historians: a “ second birth ” A transformation into a nation. Still very important – and sometimes painful – memory / memories.  Book: James McPherson, The War that Forged a Nation..., notably chapter 1. Not – at all – the end of hardships for African Americans, especially in the Old South. Economic reasons. Legal reasons – Jim Crow Laws (late 19th and early 20th centuries). Cultural reasons – Enduring racism. The fighting kept going on: Progressive abolition throughout the end of the 19th and the 20th centuries. 1926 League of Nations => International convention about slavery. 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights => Article 4 banning slavery in all its forms. 1956 UN complementary convention about slavery, slave trade and institutions / practices similar to slavery. 2001 slavery and slave trade recognized as crimes against humanity. A necessary vigilance: Around 40 million people are currently enslaved. Awareness and readiness to act. ↑ Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War John Calhoun, Slavery : A Positive Good Speech delivered to the US Senate February 6th, 1837. “On the reception of abolition petitions” Asks for them to read two petitions against slavery (for the abolition), so as to be able to “know what language they hold towards the slave-holding states and their institutions.” Arguments for abolition of slavery are recapped by him: “sinful and odious in the sight of God and man” sees this as a way to make them hateful to the rest of the world doesn’t believe that concessions should be made, bc thinks that concessions follow concessions. “in this case in particular, I hold concession or compromise to be fatal”. => believes in maintaining position. already by allowing to receive these petitions, thinks that it will be asked that they be examined and deliberated upon. Some people believe that the way to stop the protests is by narrowing them down. Calhoun says that this has been tried in Congress, and it has made the ideas advance (+ believes that the subject is not for Congress to deliberate upon) for now, abolitionist views have not reached senate or “the great mass of the intelligent and business portion of the North”, but believes that it’s spreading (and that it should not) => predicts outcome as a “deadly conflict” btw North and South talks about the doctrine of the proclamation and the force bill [measures to overcome nullification] => govt has right in last resort, to determine extent of its power and enforce its decisions. => says that he spoke several years before with a senator, and told him he thought this doctrine would cause rise of abolitionism (bc people would believe state = almighty, and large part of people in North = against slavery) “I then predicted that it would commence as it has with this fanatical portion of society; and that they would begin their operations on the ignorant, the weak, the young, and the thoughtless, and gradually extend upwards till they would become strong enough to obtain political control; when he and others holding the highest stations is society would, however reluctant, be compelled to yield to their doctrines, or be driven into obscurity.” Those who believe that the abolitionist movements will stop by itself are wrong, calls for “prompt and efficient” measures. => already spreading in schools but also in press. If left like this, USA will become 2 =/= countries. “Abolition and the Union cannot co-exist.” Believes that abolitionism cannot end well, one or the other of the 2 “races” inhabiting the South will be extirpated. => existing relationships between the “races” are considered as good. “I hold that in the present state of civilization, the relation now existing in the slave-holding states between the 2 [races], is instead of an evil, a good – a positive good.” Reasons why he thinks it is a good: Africans have never reached “a condition so civilized and improved” (physically, morally, and intellectually) More and more people are born: Concludes that this proves his point that slaves are happy with their condition As for white slave owners: the “white or European race has not degenerated” Have protected liberty (??), resisted encroachments of power. Inferior only in the fact that they gain less money (for him, it’s bc union invests less in the South) In every wealthy society ever, always people who work and people who don’t. Says that slaves prefer this condition to working and being in poor houses. Believes that slavery forms most solid foundation for free and stable political institutions. In every society, conflict btw need for labor and will for capital. Slavery = good way to deal with that Predicts that eventually, people will realize Southern institutions are the most stable thx to slavery. If emancipation for slaves, people will then ask that the former slaves be raised to “a social and political equity with the whites” => North would become masters, and South would become the slaves? Believes in ability of slave-holding states to defend themselves if needed.** ↑ Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War Abraham Lincoln, Reply to Emancipation One hour interview between President Lincoln and the representatives of the Chicago Christians. Written from the point of view of the Christians Around the question of a proclamation of emancipation (at a federal level) by Lincoln. There was for now only a law freeing and protecting slaves of rebel masters who joined the Union’s lines, ie for no one. Lincoln Very thoughtful/hesitant, has considered the question “for weeks past, and I may even say months” Uses any advice, with respect. I trust that, in the freedom with which I have canvassed your views, I have not in any respect injured your feelings. But everyone has a different opinion: I am approached with the most opposite opinions and advice, and that by religious men, who are equally certain that they represent the Divine will The debate is centred around God Lincoln does not consider his decision on constitutional or moral grounds. Questions the utility of emancipation if he cannot even enforce the Constitution in the rebel states Chicago Christians: convincing Lincoln to emancipate Religious reasons. “the Bible denounced oppression as one of the highest crimes” Argument of the vision of foreign countries: “Secure the sympathy of Europe and the whole civilised world”, also that “the toleration of that aristocratic and despotic element among our free institutions was the inconsistency that nearly wrought our ruin and caused free government to appear a failure before the world” Winning the war by attacking the enemy from the inside. Emancipation would “withdraw the slaves from the rebels” But Lincoln doubts the slaves would fight and join the Union’s ranks, there is also the problem of the lack of food and weapons in the army Countering the argument that emancipation would cause the Border Slave States to secede. It is highly unlikely, and if it happened the number of slaves joining the Union’s ranks would outnumber the loss of soldiers from these states How the Confederates are depicted Reports say they are also convinced to be right and expect “God to favor their side” When they take black prisoners they immediately auction them off Expedition from Washington under a “flag of truce” to bury the dead and take care of the wounded Confederates sent the “blacks” who came to help to slavery. They don’t even respect the rules of war, perhaps because they don’t consider African American as human beings? ↑ Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War Maria Wesotn Chapman, How can I help to abolish slavery ? WHO? The American Anti-Slavery Society : Founder: Garrison Association formed / officialized by a proper constitution signed in Philadelphia on December 4, 1833 PURPOSE/MOTIVATIONS “the objects of this society are the entire abolition of slavery in the US” (ART.2) difficulties faced: federalism → could not prevent the states to legislate in regards to the abolition of slavery. SOLUTION: convince & galvanize public opinion under the flag of democratic and Christian values: “Whereas the Most High God ‘hath made of one blood all nations of men to dwell on all the face of the earth’ [...] and whereas our national experience is based upon this principle, as recognized in the Declaration of Independence ‘that all mankind are created equal, and they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights [life, liberty, happiness] [...] nearly one sixth of the nation are held in bondage by their fellow-citizens”. MEANS the work of the AASS was carried on by newspapers, books, tracts, agents, meetings and conventions; all of this was funded by the club’s adherents FOCUS: Anti-Slavery tracts n°14 “Counsel to the newly converted” try to raise awareness about the biased means to abolish slavery that some actors -hypocritically (you had been trying how to seem creditably interested in what ought to be an American’s first business, and calculating how little instead of how much you might sacrifice the soul-exalting cause of freedom” or not- proposed at this time: 1. “hear the agents of slavery presenting the colonization scheme as the instrument of abolition” Counter argument (C.A.): “it can do nothing for Christianizing Africa, for its sends a slaveholding gospel, which is anti-Christ. Be not deceived, then, by a tyrannical mockery like this, working to perpetuate slavery, and not to abolish it.” judges it totally immoral, vicious and perverted; people involved in slavery (trade, markets etc) try to manipulate the public opinion to conserve this harmful tradition 2. “Form a political party, free soil or other, to vote down slavery” C.A. She considers that leading this battle via “traditional” politics is non efficient; according to her “get one set of men out of office and another in” will just confirm that both were “incapable to turn back the whirlpool”. She adds that the labors under political partisanship must always be sacrificing the end to the means”. Therefore, the solution seems to be the creation of new politics = cement the AASS position and political role. 3. “Buy slaves and set them free” C.A. Inefficient as it simultaneously contributes to the “evil” slave market. In fact, this would “make the destruction of the system more difficult by practising upon it”. The author makes the link between the slavery-dependent states and tyrannical/monarchical regimes “this system of slavery makes the south the parent of long lines of princes. It gives to her diabolical dominions.” 4. “Organize vigilance committees, and establish underground railroads” C.A. This would mean “preferring the less, which excludes the greater, to the greater, which includes the less”. “Slavery can only be abolished by raising the character of the people who compose the Nation” → cf. ART.III “this society shall aim to elevate the character and condition of the people of color [...] removing public prejudice” 5. “found schools and churches for blacks, and thus prepare for the abolition of slavery” C.A. No, it would mean establishing on the long term a structural racism and segregation in public institutions + in total contradiction with Christian values “the Christian religion forbids the sacrifice of one man’s rights to another man’s interests, and which knows no distinction of caste, color or condition”. In fact, according to her, the “church and state which deny human brotherhood by sanctionning slavery and pull down Christ to their own level” 6. “Establish free-labor warehouses” C.A. It would lead to “expend in search of the products of free labor the time and money that would make labour free” VALUES emphasized to sensibilize people, and make them join the cause: Plays on the contrast between the “degraded and corrupted” nation and the innate good nature and great movement that was developing itself “strive to be perfect” “We may draw good out of evil: we must not do evil, that good may come” dramatic & epic tone to move the audience: “it is ‘the bright consummate flower’ of the Christianity of the 19th” humanitarian dimension (oc): “be most grateful for the opportunity of fulfilling a work which is its own exceeding great reward” “Do your duty by them, in the name of self-respect” christian values (see supra) republican values historical reference “you owe to these individuals and to that brotherhood who have battled 20 years in the breach for your freedom, involved with that of the meanest slave” ↑ Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War Frederic Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave ? Conditions when Frederick Douglass was with Mr. Covey: Sore back (every week - whipped) due to his awkwardness Had enough food, but not enough time to eat it (< 5 min) Frederick Douglass thinks highly of himself, but is guilty of forcing his woman slave to commit adultery in order to have children. His time with slaveholder Covey was the worst, as it broke him mentally and physically. When he fought back against Covey, he was not punished severely because it would have hurt Covey's reputation. Slaves were given holidays not out of benevolence, but to prevent insurrection. Harriet Jacobs' autobiography highlights the sexual abuses faced by enslaved women and appeals to white women in the North to understand the horrors of slavery. She also discusses the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which required the return of escaped slaves and punished those who helped them. ↑ Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War Harriet Ann Jacobs, Incidents in the life of a Slave Girl Autobiography written by a fugitive mother, Harriet Jacobs (who takes the pseudonym of Linda Brent in the book) and published in 1861 by Lydia Maria Child (an american abolitionist). Her story is mostly about the sexual abuses that the young enslaved women face and their difficult motherhood, as they need to protect their children from exploitation. This book mostly appeals to the white women in the North to make them understand the atrocities of slavery. Harriet Jacobs explains how the black women lost control over the virtue as they were dominated by powerful white men. Her book also deals with the Fugitive Slave act of 1850 that is effective in the South but also in the North. Summary of the book Harriet was born in North Carolina from slave parents. At 6 she starts working at her mother’s mistress who would treat her kindly, but who eventually dies. Harriet is sent to her mistress’ relatives’ house. Her new master forces her to have sexual relations with him, which she chooses to avoid by having a relation with a white neighboor whom she thought would protect her.  She will have two children with this man, who will be enslaved just like her because they were born from a slave mother. Partus sequitur ventrem The rest of her life will be a sequence of flights and fights to get her children back. Main Ideas and topics raised in the book : Harriet Jacobs highlights the fact that there cannot be any “good” slave master , as slavery corrupts everything because of its intrinsic cruelty and violence. I ndeed, in the book, Harriet has two children with a white man, who eventually keeps his own children enslaved as if they were unrelated. She shows that slavery can even corrupt the purest feelings. If a white woman and a black man have a children together, the woman’s family would often practice infant murder. Normal human relationships cannot survive the disruption of the slave system Harriet depicts the crude violence that takes place in the slavery system She explains that her master could beat his slaves till they bled, that her mistress would make Harriet’s aunt sleep on the ground even when she was pregnant leading to many miscarriages, that the slaves’ wounds would be washed with brine to make them suffer even more…. The desire for a comfortable home runs throughout the book, as Harriet is excluded for this norm of womanhood because she cannot have a house of her own. Harriet Jacobs focuses on mental and spiritual health. In her book, she explains that being denied fundamental human rights is the source of a great mental suffering. Even slaves who are not beaten and lynched are stripped of their humanity : they cannot marry whomever they want and their families are torn apart. Summary of the extracts : XVII - The flight The protagonist (Linda) has children and wants to live her masters’ because she knows that her children will be used against her, to prevent her from leaving and to tighten her master’s grip upon her. She faces a dilemma : her grandmother tries to buy her and her children from the masters, but Linda knows her child will be transported to the plantations the day after, and that they won’t be sold to anyone if she remains under her masters’ control. Wanted notice posted in every public place for miles around when she ran away. XVIII - months of peril She found a place where to hide at a friend’s, while her children were put to jail to force her to come back to her masters. ↑ Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War John Brown, The Battle Hymn of the Republic Reims 24-25 - LENC - Session 8 - Music to be sent.pdf PDF Document 223.0 KB John Brown A fierce abolitionist. Kansas: “Border War” crisis (1854-1861). Pottawatomie massacre (24-25 May 1856) – Battle of Black Jack (2 June 1856) – Battle of Osawatomie (30 August 1856). 16 October 1859: raid on the federal armory of Harpers Ferry (West Virginia). Brown arrested, tried and eventually hanged. Important steps on the path that led to the beginning of the US Civil War. A marching song– Performed for the first time on 12 May 1861 – Very popular among Union troops – Some other versions. The tune was later used for the song The Battle Hymn of the Republic / “Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory”. A “chameleon hymn” suiting circumstances. Amazing Grace was written by John Newton, an English sailor of training who became an Anglican pastor in the 1850s. A. Newton, from slavery to abolition and the birth of an American hit The interesting thing about Newton is that he was operating as a sailor on slave trip ships before 1848, and slave trade was a dangerous enterprise. Casualties were higher among the crew that among the slaves (12% of the crew died in the Atlantic crossing). Held in a storm, Newton converted to abolitionism, as he has a revelation of god speaking to him and as a consequence he started to write hymns – that is to say songs praising the lord, not to be confused with anthem. Hymns at that time circulated in the form of small books distributed to the members who can then have the same corpus of songs to sing during mess. The circulation of those small books is very important to understand how Amazing Grace crossed the Atlantic and became more popular in the US. B. Northern, Southern and black Baptists and the New Britain tune Of course until the 1830s there is no trace of what songs the hymns could be written on. It is only in the 1850s and William Walker’s version of New Britain, that created the tune we know today. Until an Amazing Grace was fixed on the tune we know today, it would be based on any song. There was much more destructions in the South – all the economic infrastructure was destroyed. On the other hand, the Union emerged considerably stronger from the war. The Union army was in charge of restoring law and order: 200 000 soldiers were involved in restoring laws in the South. They did it in an efficient and moderate way. The rest of the troops were demobilized. The army did not try to play a political role. Sherman for example was asked to get involved in politics but he refused. The Civil War ended the practice of slavery: o 13th amendment: in 1865, abolition of slavery is integrated in the Constitution o 14th amendment: civil rights given to former slaves o right to vote given in 1870 (March 30) The new President, Andrew Johnson was caught between radical republicans and southern hatred. He did not have Lincoln’s political weight. He was caught between moderation and firmness. All former Confederate States had reintegrated the union by 1870. In 1877, federal troops had left the former Confederation (end of the Reconstruction). But the problem was that from 1877, the States had the right to establish the legal framework of the relations between blacks and whites. That provoked the beginning of racial segregation in the South. The end of the civil war did not mean the end of the hardships faced by slaved. Racism would survive, and fighting kept going on. It was only in 1926 with the creation of the Society of Nations that the issue of racism was dealt with, and in 1948, the Universal Declaration of the Human Rights, article 4, banned slavery in all its forms. Texts from hymns were put to songs in different types of tubes. The passage to the US is ambiguous however. This appropriation of Amazing Grace in America presents a lot of paradoxes, because the writer of the tune – Walker – is a Southern Baptist. The secession of Southern Baptists from the Baptist Church is based on the issue of slavery. Southern Baptists argued that slavery could be justified by religion. This has led the song to become an ambiguous legacy. Today, it is associated with the African- Americans’ fights for rights. C. The Battle end of the Republic – John Brown’s body The Battle end of the Republic is often understood as being the 2nd American anthem. Yet, it has been known under another version – John Brown’s body –, which was very popular under the Civil War and stayed popular in the 20th century. One must remember that spirituality is still very important in the United States’, especially since the US went through the Second Great Awakening that saw the rise of the Baptist Church. Spirituality in the US explains why hymns are an important feature of US daily lives. It is in this context that John Brown’s body circulates, which is the original version of the Battle end of the Republic.  At the term of the 20th century, marches and military hymns were very popular. This is problematic because in 1902, when the recording is issued, the Civil War is over, whereas the hymn is no other than the celebration of John Brown. He was a militant of the abolitionist cause. He became famous is 1856 in the context of the sectional crisis between North and South around the rallying of Western States. He became famous because of the massacre in Kansas, in which he and his men killed 5 Southerners who migrated to Western States in order to get the slave state cause to prevail. He illustrates his fight again in October 1859 through his raid on Harper’s Ferry. Harper’s Ferry is a fight between the Virginian troops and John Brown’s troops. He is cached and hanged. This made him a symbol of the abolitionist cause. On the other hand, his ruthless approach made him popular in Southern States. John Brown’s body becomes a popular song in both union troops during the war and in Southern troops, notably in the 12th Massachusetts volunteers. The song is appropriated by Northern troops as a symbol. In fact, this song will become the tune on which several union songs will be put, in particular McClellan’s song. It remains a controversial legacy. In 1943, John Sueart Curry paints a very stoic picture of John Brown, that the Kansas government will strongly oppose. D. Brave McClellan’s song It was written in 1862. It was put to the tune of John Brown’s song but it celebrated General McClellan, who was the man who first led the army of the Union. It becomes a popular song in the Union. The reason for which the Battle of the Republic was kept is that although it was an Union song, it could rally both Southerners and Northerners after the war. Lincoln was striving to bring a solution to the war that could satisfy a common identity of the South and the North. He wanted to avoid that the gap created between the North and the South during the war retranslated after the war in a strong divide. The Battle end of the Republic is a praise to god and the armies of god, so it becomes a neutral focus point that can be adopted to all. This all shows how hymns can be sort of ‘chameleons’, that can be adapted to different periods and issues. They can be interpreted by different groups and causes. Hymns, throughout the 18th and 19th century, become ambiguous markers of political and ideological identities. Amazing Grace and John Brown’s body incarnate songs and poems that can be interpreted in different ways. It is complex to locate them as political marker in the very chaotic context of the time. ↑ Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War Harriet Beecher-Stowe, Uncle Tom's Cabin The publishing of Harriet Beecher-Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852 did not calm the situation. She was born in a family that was a firm proponent of abolition. One year after the publication, 300 thousand copies had been sold just in the US. It was a huge success in Europe too. In the South, the book provoked rage and hatred. 30 books were published in answer to demonstrate how she was just wrong. ↑ Session 8 Slavery, Resistances, Abolition & US Civil War CASE STUDY – Dying during the US Civil War Reims 24-25 - LENC - Session 8 - CS Dying US Civil War to be sent.pdf PDF Document 301.0 KB This case study is about: History of the warlike phenomenon History of religion History of representations History of sensitivity History of emotions The Civil War resulted in 620 000 dead. 2% of the US population. 1,56% of the population of the North 2,8% of the population in the South. When you consider the armies, this is even more appealing. In the Confederation army, there were 260 000 dead, that is 1 man out of 3,5 and in the Union Army, 360 000 perished representing 1 man out of 6. Historians consider that with the US civil war the United States entered the era of mass death. The injuries on the body provoked by the artillery were rare (5% of the wounds), but they were spectacular and terrifying. Those bodies were destroyed. This is where religion joins the study of dying in the US Civil War. The dead were not buried for several months because enemy’s death did not ‘deserve’ it, and because there was a clear lack of man force to perform such tasks. Observers describe the ‘smell of death’ all over the regions of the United States. The problem is that at a time where people were still dying at home and where the ritual of accompanying the dying still occupied a central place, such a mass death weakened an ‘art of dying’ (= art moriendi), that was supposed to lead to a good death. Thousands of Americans were dying alone, far from their homes. The families did not know the circumstances of the death, how or of what the beloved one died, how he behaved dying his last moments on earth, his last thoughts etc. They also did not know if he died as a religious man, having made peace with god. Phillipe Ariès, in his book Essais sur l’histoire de la mort en Occident du Moyen Age à nos jours describes four steps about death:  First, about the way death and the dying process was experienced by people dying and those surrounding the death. This is what he called the ‘tamed death’, when the individual knows he is going to die and he is preparing him/herself. In the ‘death of oneself’ stage, it is an individual who is dying and not a member of a community. The death of the other: this is the context in which we are when studying the US Civil War. From the 18th century, people in Western societies tended to give death a new meaning. The exalted death and put emphasis on worship of graves and cemeteries, and on the process of mourning. The forbidden death: this process starts in the 1940s/1950s, when death is taken away from the family and moved to the hospitals. This takes us to those concepts: Emotionology (Stearns) Emotives (Reddy) Emotional community (Rosenwein) The idea is that this mass death process in the US between 1861 and 1866 created an emotional community around the mourning process. The soldiers took various measures. They prepared themselves to death – they got closer to religion for example. They also made pacts with comrades. They would evacuate wounded from the battlefield. In case of death, the comrades that with the US Civil War the United States of America entered the era of mass death. They exalted death and put emphasize on worship of graves and cemeteries, and This is why historians consider the process of mourning would write a letter to the family and send small personal belongings of the dead. The soldiers themselves possibly carried on them a last letter they had written in case the worse happened. With the sick and wounded soldiers, comrades, chaplains and nurses played an important role and replaced the families. They would find a new role around the dying. The families tried to organize themselves. Many endeavoured to look for the corpses to pay tribute to their lost ones. This wasn’t easy for lack of money and transportation, and there was no trace of the corps possible when they were left on the battlefield. This made the mourning process even more painful and difficult, and long. This looking for the corpse created some very profitable businesses. Some people were pretending that they knew everything about the battlefield and everyone in the army, and that they would look for the corpses in exchange for money. All in all, this phenomenon of mass death and its consequences made the coming out of war process even more difficult at the collective and individual level. For more than 30 years, until 1891, tribute was only paid to the Union deaths. It is only President McKinley, in the War against Spain in 1898, who decided that tribute should be paid to all the dead of the US Civil War. It is only in 1929 that the headstones given to the dead were the same in the US cemeteries.**