SEM 1 - Behavioural sciences.pdf

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY ASSOC. PROF. ADRIAN BUMBU MD. PhD BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Sciences concerned with the study, observation and explanation of person behavior either in single individual or in groups. Behavior can be:  Conscious or unconscious,  Overt or co...

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY ASSOC. PROF. ADRIAN BUMBU MD. PhD BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Sciences concerned with the study, observation and explanation of person behavior either in single individual or in groups. Behavior can be:  Conscious or unconscious,  Overt or covert,  Voluntary or involuntary. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Determinants of Human Behavior:  Biological perspective  Behavioral perspective  Psychoanalytic perspective  Cognitive perspective  Humanistic perspective BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES The behavior of people falls within a range:  Common or unusual,  Acceptable or outside acceptability,  The acceptability of behavior and normativity is evaluated relative to social and moral norms and regulated by various means of social control. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Behavioral sciences encompass all the disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through controlled and naturalistic experimental observations and rigorous formulations. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES & SOCIAL SCIENCES Focuses on the behavior of human beings & animals.  Experimental in nature,  High level of Empiricism,  Concentrates on the communication and decision related themes,  Focuses on human beings in the social context,  Experimental quality is vague in Social sciences. SPECTRUM OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Psychology is the science of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought. It is an academic discipline of immense scope. As a social science, it aims to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases SPECTRUM OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Sociology is the study of human behavior. Sociology refers to social behavior, society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture that surrounds everyday life. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order and social change. Sociology can also be defined as the general science of society. SPECTRUM OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour and cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. SPECTRUM OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. SPECTRUM OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Ecology is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic and abiotic components. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. SPECTRUM OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES & PSYCHOLOGY GENERAL SPECIFIC Focus on output Pratical application Imply to mental processes Input & output Practical application TOPIC DOMAINS FOR BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TEACHING 1. Mind body interaction 2. Patient behavior 3. Physician role and behavior 4. Physician patient interaction 5. Social and cultural issues in health care 6. Health policy and economics BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY ASSOC. PROF. ADRIAN BUMBU MD PhD THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1. Theories on Human Development- Erik Erikson 2. Theories on Human Development- Jean Piaget 3. Theories on Human Development- Sigmund Freud Theories on Human Development ERIK ERIKSON THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ERIK ERIKSON Erik Erikson believed that human personality was determined by childhood and adult experiences. His stages are determined by crises and these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self. THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ERIK ERIKSON The stages that make up his theory are as follows: Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair AGE CONFLICT IMPORTANT EVENTS OUTCOME Infancy (birth to 1 year) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope Early Childhood (1 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training Will Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence Adolescence (11 to end of adolescence) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Fidelity Young Adulthood (21 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love Work and Parenthood Care Reflection on Life Wisdom Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 Generativity vs. Stagnation years) Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust Birth to 1 year If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 1 to 3 years Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits. Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt 3 to 5 years The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges. Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority 6 to 11 years Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them. Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion 11 years to adolescence This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self, they deal with morality and ethics. They will be preoccupied with appearances. Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation 21 to 40 years Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people. Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation 40 to 65 years Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage. Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair over 65 years old This stage is focused on reflecting back on life. Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should have. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death. Theories on Human Development JEAN PIAGET THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT JEAN PIAGET Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought. His theory focuses on understanding how children acquire knowledge regarding fundamental concepts such as object permanence, number, categorization, quantity, causality, and justice. Piaget's four stages of cognitive development include: 1. Sensorimotor: Birth to 2 years. 2. Preoperational: 2 years to 7 years 3. Concrete operational: 7 years to 11 years 4. Formal operational: 11 years to end of adolescence Sensorimotor Stage Birth to 2 years The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object. This is done by using all five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as pulling a lever on a music box to hear a sound, placing a block in a bucket and pulling it back out, or throwing an object to see what happens Preoperational Stage 2 years to 7 years During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself. Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Language development and make-believe play begin during this stage. Logical thinking is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or understand more complex ideas. Concrete operational Stage 7 years to 11 years In this stage the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world). It is characterized by the idea that children’s reasoning becomes focused and logical. Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes. EXAMPLE: a child who understands the principles of conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid will remain the same despite the size of the container in which they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp conservation and logical thinking will believe that the taller or larger glass must contain more liquid. Formal operational Stage 11 years to end of adolescence It is characterized by the idea that children develop the ability to think in abstract ways. This enables children to engage in the problem-solving method of developing a hypothesis and reasoning their way to plausible solutions. Children can think of abstract concepts and have the ability to combine various ideas to create new ones. By the end of this stage, children have developed logical and systematic thinking, are capable of deductive reasoning, and can create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts. Theories on Human Development SIGMUND FREUD THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT SIGMUND FREUD Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. EXEMPLE: A person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating. THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT SIGMUND FREUD SIgmund's five stages of development include: 1. Oral stage, 2. Anal stage, 3. Phallic stage, 4. Latent stage, 5. genital stage. The Oral Stage Age Range: Birth to 18 months During this stage, the mouth is the pleasure center for development. Freud believed this is why infants are born with a sucking reflex and desire their mother’s breast. If a child’s oral needs are not met during infancy, he or she may develop negative habits such as nail biting or thumb sucking to meet this basic need. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. The Anal Stage Age Range: 1 to 3 years During this stage, toddlers and preschool-aged children begin to experiment with urine and feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily functions is manifested in toilettraining. Improper resolution of this stage, such as parents toilet training their children too early, can result in a child who is uptight and overly obsessed with order. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults. The Phallic Stage Age Range: 3 to 5Years During this stage, preschoolers take pleasure in their genitals and, according to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers).  For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy’s desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention. At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety.  The Electra complex involves a girl’s desire for her father’s attention and wish to take her mother’s place. The child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. The Latent Period Age Range: 5 to 11-13 years During this stage, sexual instincts subside, and children begin to further develop the superego, or conscience. Children begin to behave in morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of their parents and other important adults. Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult. The Genital Stage Age Range: 11-13 to adulthood During this stage, sexual impulses reemerge. If other stages have been successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage and childbirth. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY ASSOC. PROF. ADRIAN BUMBU MD PhD DEFENSE MECHANISMS Psychic Structures Freud's Personality Theory (1923) saw the psyche structured into three parts:  The ID,  Ego,  Superego. These 3 parts develop at different stages in our lives and they are not part of any structures in the brain, neither are they structures/ physical in any way. These elements work together to create complex human behaviors. What is the ID?  Represents the primitive and instinctive component of personality.  It consists of all the inherited components of personality present at birth, such as:  The sex instinct (life)- Eros,  The agressive instinct (death)- Thanatos.  Is the impulsive part of our psyche and responds directly to basic urges, needs and desires.  It remains infantile in its function throughout a person’s life and does not change with time or experience.  It operates within the unconscious part of the mind. What is the ID? yea not an abbreviation it is “id”  The ID operates on the pleasure principle (every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences).  It engages in primary process thinking, which is primitive, illogical and irrational. This form of thinking is selfish and wishful in nature. EXEMPLE: In line at the salad bar, Sally was so hungry that she shoved a handful of croutons in her mouth as she waited for the line to move. What is the Ego?  It develops from the ID and ensures that the impulses of the ID can be expressed in an accepted manner in the real world.  The Ego functions in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind.  The Ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.  It is concerned with devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure. The ego is 'like a man on horseback, who has to hold in check the superiour strength of the horse.‘ (Freud, 1923, p. 15) What is the Ego?  If the Ego fails in its attempt to use the reality principle and anxiety is experienced, unconscious defense mechanisms are employed, to help ward off unpleasant feelings.  It engages in secondary process thinking, which is rational, realistic, and orientated towards problem-solving. EXEMPLE: In line at the salad bar, Sally really wanted to shove a handful of croutons into her mouth. However, since her boss was there, she decided to wait another minute or two until she sat down to eat. What is the Superego?  It incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 years.  It’s major role is to control the ID's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression.  Also, it persuades the Ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.  The Superego consists of 2 systems:  The conscience (can punish the Ego through causing feelings of guilt),  The ideal self (an imaginary picture of how you ought to be). What is the Superego?  Behavior which falls short of the ideal self may be punished by the Superego through guilt. For behaving properly, the Superego will make us feel proud. EXEMPLE: Maggie couldn't remember the answer to the last question from the test, even though she had studied. Nate was the smartest kid in the class, and from where Maggie sat, she could see his answers if she turned her head slightly. When Mrs. Archer turned her back, Maggie almost cheated, but her conscience stopped her because she knew it was wrong. Instead, Maggie took a guess at the answer and then turned in her paper. Defense mechanisms These defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological responses that protect people from feelings of anxiety, threats to self-esteem and things that they don't want to think about or deal with. We use defense mechanisms when our ID or Superego becomes too demanding. Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out of proportion, neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions or hysteria. Displacement Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening. It occurs when the ID wants to do something of which the Superego does not permit. In this way, the Ego finds some other way of releasing the psychic energy of the ID. EXEMPLE: Someone who is frustrated by his or her superiours may go home and kick the dog, beat up a family member or engage in cross-burnings. Denial It is one of the best-known defense mechanisms, often used to describe situations in which people seem unable to face reality or admit an obvious truth. Denial functions to protect the Ego from things the individual cannot cope with. Sometimes, it might involve admitting that something is true, but minimizing its importance or people will accept reality and the seriousness of the fact, but they will deny their own responsibility and instead blame other people or other outside forces. EXEMPLE: Addiction is one of the best-known examples of denial. People who are living with a substance use problem will often flat-out deny that their behavior is problematic. In other cases, they might admit that they do use drugs or alcohol but will claim that their substance use is not problematic. Repression and Suppression REPRESSION SUPPRESSION acts to keep information out of conscious awareness, even though these memories don't just disappear; they continue to influence our behavior. forcing the unwanted information out of our awareness, done in a conscious way. It is the only conscious defense mechanisms. Repression and Suppression EXEMPLES REPRESSION SUPPRESSION In the Oedipus complex, aggressive thoughts about the same sex parents are repressed and pushed down into the unconscious. “I would rather forget that my dog was run over by a car”. Sublimation It represents a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form. Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function normally in socially acceptable ways. EXEMPLE: Many great artists and musicians have had unhappy lives and have used the medium of art of music to express themselves. Sport is another example of putting our emotions (e.g., aggression) into something constructive. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY ASSOC. PROF. ADRIAN BUMBU MD PhD DEFENSE MECHANISMS Projection It involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people. Projection works by allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the Ego cannot recognize, therefore reducing anxiety. EXEMPLE: You might hate someone, but your Superego tells you that such hatred is unacceptable. You can 'solve' the problem by believing that they hate you. Intellectualization Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way. This defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of the situation and instead focus only on the intellectual component. EXEMPLE: A person who has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness might focus on learning everything about the disease in order to avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the situation. Rationalization It involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational/logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior. Rationalization can prevent anxiety and also it can protect self-esteem and self-concept. When confronted by success or failure, people tend to attribute achievement to their own qualities and skills while failures are blamed on other people or outside forces. EXEMPLE: A person may explain a natural disaster as 'God's will'. Regression Is a defense mechanism whereby the Ego reverts to an earlier stage of development usually in response to stressful situations. Regression functions as form of retreat, enabling a person to psychologically go back in time to a period when the person felt safer. Behaviors associated with regression can vary greatly depending upon which stage at which the person is fixated. (The stages of psychosexual development) EXEMPLE: Teenagers may giggle uncontrollably when introduced into a social situation involving the opposite sex. Reaction Formation A person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he /she thinks or feels. Conscious behaviors are adopted to overcompensate for the anxiety a person feels regarding their socially unacceptable unconscious thoughts or emotions. By using the reaction formation, the ID is satisfied while keeping the ego in ignorance of the true motives. EXEMPLE: Men who are prejudice against homosexuals are making a defense against their own homosexual feelings by adopting a harsh anti-homosexual attitude which helps convince them of their heterosexuality. Somatization It consists of converting psychic derivatives into bodily symptoms and tending to react with somatic manifestations, rather than psychic manifestations. All the physical symptoms are a result of psychological processes. When these symptoms impaired for a longer period of time, this defense becomes a disorderSomatoform disoder. EXEMPLE: Getting a headache while taking an exam. Acting out It is a defense which consists in performing an extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or feelings the person feels incapable of expressing. It can be an act of pressure release and often it helps the individual feel camer and peaceful. The ID gets to vent its emotional pressure without Superego’s constraints. EXEMPLE: Instead of saying “I’m angry with you”, a person who acts out may instead throw a book at the person. Humor Humor may function as an adaptive Ego defense by enabling people to perceive the comical absurdity in highly challenging situations. Freud suggested that “Humor can be regarded as the highest of the defensive processes”. EXEMPLE: As a man is about to be executed, the firing squad leader offers the man about to be executed a cigarette. He replies: “No thanks, I’m trying to quit.” Undoing Represents an attempt to take back an unconscious behavior or thought that is unacceptable or hurtful. Through this defense mechanism, the person is attempting to counteract the damage done by the original comment, hoping the two will balance one another out. EXEMPLE: When asked to recommend a friend for a job, a man makes comments which prevent the friend’s getting the position. After a few days, the man visits his friend and brings him a small gift. Splitting Represents the view of self or others as either all good or all bad without considering the whole range of qualities (thinking in extremes). Splitting helps to preserve one’s own “good” self image by splitting all the bad parts and projecting them onto another person or group. EXEMPLE: Seeing all men without mustaches as feminine. Blocking It represents a transition inability to remember specific matter of facts. It is often seen as embarrassing or disruptive. EXEMPLE: I can’t seem to remember his name. Introjection It involves incorporating personality characteristics associated with someone else into your own personality in order to deal with a specific situation. Forming a real/ imaginary alliance in order to bolster self-esteem. It can be seen more often in insecure individuals. EXEMPLE: A person who dislikes guns becomes an avid hunter, just like a best friend. Isolation It represents a splitting or a separation of an idea from the affect that accompanies it, thus allowing only the idea, but not the associated affect to enter the awareness. EXEMPLE: A child who has been beaten discusses the beatings without any display of emotions. The Takeaway  Defense mechanisms can be viewed as a type of self-deception. You might be using them to hide emotional responses that you don’t want to deal with from yourself.  Some defense mechanisms are considered more “mature”. That means using them may be more sustainable. Even in the long term, they may not be particularly detrimental to your emotional or mental health (such as sublimation and intellectualization).  Prolonged use of the immature defense mechanisms can lead to lingering problems.  Defense mechanisms are normal and natural. They are often used without any long-term complications or issues.  Some people can develop emotional difficulties if they continue to use these mechanisms without coping with the underlying threat or anxiety. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY ASSOC. PROF. ADRIAN BUMBU MD PhD Psychological Experiments The history of psychology is filled with different studies and experiments that helped change the way we think about human behavior. Sometimes the results of these experiments were so surprising they challenged conventional wisdom about the human mind. No. SUBJECT EXPERIMENTER 1. Obedience Stanley Milgram 2. Conformity Solomon Asch 3. Inprisonment Philip Zimbardo 4. Aggression Albert Bandura 5. Cognitive Disonance Leon Festinger 6. Eyewitness Memory Elizabeth Loftus 7. Groupthink Irving Ianis 8. Learned Helplesness Martin Seligman 9. Theory of the mind David Premack 10. Halo Effect Edward Thorndike OBEDIENCE The experiment was carried out by Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, in 1961. He conducted an experiment focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. click to watch video OBEDIENCE There were 40 men recruited using newspaper ads. In exchange for their participation, each person was paid $4.50. Each participant took the role of a "teacher" who would deliver a shock to the "student" whenever an incorrect answer was given. While the participant believed that he was delivering real shocks to the student, the “student” was a confederate in the experiment who was simply pretending to be shocked. The shock generator had shock levels starting at 30 volts and increasing in 15-volt increments all the way up to 450 volts. The switches were labeled with terms including:  "slight shock,"  "moderate shock"  "danger: severe shock." OBEDIENCE As the experiment progressed, the participant would hear the learner plead to be released or even complain about a heart condition. Once they reached the 300-volt level, the learner would bang on the wall and demand to be released. Beyond this point, the learner became completely silent and refused to answer any more questions. The experimenter then instructed the participant to treat this silence as an incorrect response and deliver a further shock. OBEDIENCE Most participants asked the experimenter whether they should continue. The experimenter issued a series of commands to prod the participant along:  "Please continue."  "The experiment requires that you continue."  "It is absolutely essential that you continue."  "You have no other choice; you must go on." RESULTS 65% of the participants in Milgram’s study delivered the maximum shocks. From the 40 participants in the study, 26 delivered the maximum shocks while 14 stopped before reaching the highest levels. It is important to note that many of the subjects became extremely agitated, distraught, and angry at the experimenter, but they continued to follow orders all the way to the end. CONCLUSIONS  The physical presence of an authority figure dramatically increased compliance.  The fact that Yale (a trusted and authoritative academic institution) sponsored the study led many participants to believe that the experiment must be safe.  The selection of teacher and learner status seemed random.  Participants assumed that the experimenter was a competent expert.  The shocks were said to be painful, not dangerous. "Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards of morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority," Milgram explained in "Obedience to Authority." CONFORMITY The conformity experiments were a series of psychological experiments conducted by Solomon Asch during the 1950s. The experiments revealed the degree to which a person's own opinions are influenced by those of groups. CONFORMITY Asch used a lab experiment to study conformity, whereby 50 male students from Swarthmore College in the USA participated in a ‘vision test.’ Using a line judgment task, Asch put a naive participant in a room with seven confederates. The confederates had agreed in advance what their responses would be when presented with the line task. The real participant did not know this and was led to believe that the other seven persons were also real participants like themselves. CONFORMITY Each person in the room had to state aloud which comparison line (A, B or C) was most like the target line. The answer was always obvious. The real participant sat at the end of the row and gave the last answer. There were 18 trials in total, and the confederates gave the wrong answer on 12 trails (called the critical trials). Asch was interested to see if the real participant would conform to the majority view. RESULTS Nearly 75% of the participants in the conformity experiments went along with the rest of the group at least one time. In the control group, with no pressure to conform to confederates, less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer. CONCLUSIONS  Conformity tends to increase when more people are present.  Conformity also increases when the task becomes more difficult.  Conformity increases when other members of the group are of a higher social status.  Conformity tends to decrease, however, when people are able to respond privately. note for surveys privacy + anonymity INPRISONMENT The experiment, funded by the U.S. Office of Naval Research, took place at Stanford University in August 1971 and was coordinated by psychologist Philip Zimbardo. It was intended to measure the effect of role-playing, labeling, and social expectations on behaviour over a period of two weeks. INPRISONMENT The experiment was set up in the basement of Stanford University and there were selected 24 undergraduate students to play the roles of both prisoners and guards. The participants were chosen from a larger group of 70 volunteers, with no criminal background, lacked psychological issues, and had no significant medical conditions. The volunteers agreed to participate during a one to two-week period in exchange for $15 a day. INPRISONMENT The 24 volunteers were then randomly assigned to either the prisoner group or the guard group. Prisoners were to remain in the mock prison 24-hours a day during the study. The use of ID numbers was a way to make prisoners feel anonymous. Each prisoner had to be called only by his ID number and could only refer to himself and the other prisoners by number. Guards were assigned to work in three-man teams for eight-hour shifts. After each shift, guards were allowed to return to their homes until their next shift. Researchers were able to observe the behavior of the prisoners and guards using hidden cameras and microphones. INPRISONMENT Guards were ordered not to physically abuse prisoners and were issued mirrored sunglasses that prevented any eye contact. Prisoners were “arrested” by actual police and handed over to the experimenters in a mock prison in the basement of a campus building. Prisoners were then subjected to indignities that were intended to simulate the environment of a real-life prison. In keeping with Zimbardo’s intention to create very quickly an “atmosphere of oppression,” each prisoner was made to wear a “dress” as a uniform and to carry a chain padlocked around one ankle. RESULTS While the Stanford Prison Experiment had to last 14 days, it had to be stopped after just six days due to what was happening to the student participants. The guards became abusive, and the prisoners began to show signs of extreme stress and anxiety. CONCLUSIONS According to Zimbardo and his colleagues, the Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrates the powerful role that the situation can play in human behavior. Because the guards were placed in a position of power, they began to behave in ways they would not usually act in their everyday lives or other situations. The prisoners, placed in a situation where they had no real control, became passive and depressed. AGGRESSION This experiment was led in the 1960s, known also as the Bobo doll experiment. Albert Bandura and his colleagues tried to demonstrate how children learn aggression through observation. AGGRESSION The experiment involved exposing children to two different adult models:  an aggressive model,  a non-aggressive one. After witnessing the adult's behavior, the children would then be placed in a room without the model and were observed to see if they would imitate the behaviors they had witnessed earlier. AGGRESSION The participants for the experiment were 36 boys and 36 girls enrolled at the Stanford University Nursery School. The children ranged in age between 3 and almost 6 years. In the experimental children were individually shown into a room containing different toys:  24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) watched a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called a 'Bobo doll'. The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in the air and shouted "Pow, Boom."  Another 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were exposed to a non-aggressive model who played in a quiet and subdued manner for 10 minutes (playing with a tinker toy set and ignoring the bobo-doll).  The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were used as a control group and not exposed to any model at all. AGGRESSION After the ten-minute exposure to the adult model, each child was then taken to another room that contained a number of appealing toys. The children were permitted to play for a brief two minutes, then told they were no longer allowed to play with any of these tempting toys. The purpose of this was to build up frustration levels among the young participants. Finally, each child was taken to the last experimental room. This room contained a number of "aggressive" toys including a mallet, a tether ball with a face painted on it, dart guns, and, of course, a Bobo doll. The room also included several "non-aggressive" toys including crayons, paper, dolls, plastic animals, and trucks. Each child was then allowed to play in this room for a period of 20 minutes. During this time raters observed the child's behavior. RESULTS  Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.  The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbal aggressive responses if the model was female.  Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex models is not strong.  Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls.  There was little difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS Children learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning - through watching the behavior of another person. In a follow-up study conducted in 1965, Bandura found that while children were more likely to imitate aggressive behavior if the adult model was rewarded for his or her actions, they were far less likely to imitate if they saw the adult model being punished or reprimanded for their hostile behavior. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE The term cognitive dissonance is used to describe the mental discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs, values or attitudes. Cognitive dissonance was first investigated by Leon Festinger. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Leon Festinger and his colleagues infiltrated a cult that believed that the world would be destroyed in a flood on 21st December 1954 and that the only members of the cult would be saved by being taken safely in a flying saucer (spaceship). The members of the cult had left their jobs, given away all of their money in preparation for the end of the word. However, no spacecraft came to take them to safety, nor did the word end. In order to justify thier previous beliefs, the cult claimed that because of their goodness, God had decided to spare the word from destruction. To change the dissonance caused by 2 beliefs, the members justified the current reality by changing thier first belief to be consistent with the second: 1. The cult belief according to which the world should have ended, 2. The knowledge that the world should have ended. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE When there are conflicts between cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, opinions), people will take steps to reduce the dissonance and feelings of discomfort. They can do this a few different ways, such as:  Adding more supportive beliefs that outweigh dissonant beliefs.  Reducing the importance of the conflicting belief.  Changing the belief. Cognitive dissonance plays a role in many value judgments, decisions, and evaluations. Becoming aware of how conflicting beliefs impact the decision-making process is a great way to improve your ability to make faster and more accurate choices EYEWITNESS MEMORY Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has been particularly concerned with how subsequent information can affect an eyewitness’s account of an event. Her main focus has been on the influence of (mis)leading information in terms of both visual imagery and wording of questions in relation to eyewitness testimony. This matter of fact was studied by Loftus and Palmer (1974) within the experiment Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction. RECONSTRUCTION OF AUTOMOBILE DESTRUCTION- EXPERIMENT NO. 1 There were selected 45 american students. They had to watch 7 films of traffic accidents, ranging in duration from 5 to 30 seconds. After watching the film, participants were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses. They were then asked specific questions: “About how fast were the cars going when they  smashed  collided  bumped  hit  contacted each other?” RECONSTRUCTION OF AUTOMOBILE DESTRUCTION- EXPERIMENT NO. 1 The estimated speed was affected by the verb used. Participants who were asked the “smashed” question thought the cars were going faster than those who were asked the “hit” question. The participants in the “smashed” condition reported the highest speed estimate (40.8 mph), followed by “collided” (39.3 mph), “bumped” (38.1 mph), “hit” (34 mph), and “contacted” (31.8 mph) in descending order. The results show that the verb conveyed an impression of the speed the car was traveling and this altered the participants' perceptions. In other words, eyewitness testimony might be based by the way questions are asked after a crime is committed RECONSTRUCTION OF AUTOMOBILE DESTRUCTION- EXPERIMENT NO. 2 150 students were shown a one minute film which featured a car driving through the countryside followed by four seconds of a multiple traffic accident. Afterwards, the students were questioned about the film. The independent variable was the type of question asked. It was manipulated by asking:  50 students 'how fast were the car going when they hit each other?',  another 50 'how fast were the car going when they smashed each other?',  the remaining 50 participants were not asked a question at all (i.e. the control group). One week later the dependent variable was measured - without seeing the film again they answered ten questions, one of which was a critical one randomly placed in the list: “Did you see any broken glass? Yes or no?" There was no broken glass on the original film. RECONSTRUCTION OF AUTOMOBILE DESTRUCTION- EXPERIMENT NO. 2 Participants who were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass. This research suggests that memory is easily distorted by questioning technique and information acquired after the event can merge with original memory causing inaccurate recall or reconstructive memory. GROUPTHINK Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon in which people strive for consensus within a group. The term was first used in 1972 by social psychologist Irving L. Janis. SIGNS OF GROUPTHINK  Illusions of invulnerability lead members of the group to be overly optimistic and engage in risk-taking.  Unquestioned beliefs lead members to ignore possible moral problems and ignore the consequences of individual and group actions.  Rationalizing prevents members from reconsidering their beliefs and causes them to ignore warning signs.  Stereotyping leads members of the in-group to ignore or even demonize out-group members who may oppose or challenge the group's ideas.  Self-censorship causes people who might have doubts to hide their fears or misgivings.  "Mindguards" act as self-appointed censors to hide problematic information from the group.  Illusions of unanimity lead members to believe that everyone is in agreement and feels the same way.  Direct pressure to conform is often placed on members who pose questions, and those who question the group are often seen as disloyal or traitorous. PROBLEMS IN GROUPTHINK  Blindness to potentially negative outcomes,  Failure to listen to people with dissenting opinions,  Lack of creativity,  Lack of preparation to deal with negative outcomes,  Ignoring important information,  Inability to see other solutions,  Not looking for things that might not yet be known to the group,  Obedience to authority without question,  Overconfidence in decisions,  Resistance to new information or ideas. TIPS TO PREVENT PROBLEMS IN GROUPTHINKING  Initially, the leader of the group should avoid stating their opinions or preferences when assigning tasks. Give people time to come up with their own ideas first.  Assign at least one individual to take the role of the "devil's advocate."  Discuss the group's ideas with an outside member in order to get impartial opinions.  Encourage group members to remain critical. Don't discourage dissent or challenges to the prevailing opinion.  Before big decisions, leaders should hold a "second-chance" meeting where members have the opportunity to express any remaining doubts.  Reward creativity and give group members regular opportunities to share their ideas and thoughts. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Learned helplessness has shown that when people feel like they have no control over what happens, they tend to simply give up and accept their fate. This concept was discovered in the late 1960s and early 1970s by psychologists Martin Seligman and Steven F. Maier. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS This concept was initially observed in dogs that were conditioned to expect an electrical shock after hearing a tone. Later, the dogs were placed in a shuttlebox that contained two chambers separated by a low barrier. The floor was electrified on one side, and not on the other. The dogs previously subjected to the classical conditioning made no attempts to escape, even though avoiding the shock simply involved jumping over a small barrier. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS To investigate this phenomenon, the researchers devised another experiment.  In group one, the dogs were strapped into harnesses for a period of time and then released.  In group two, the dogs were placed in the same harnesses but were subjected to electrical shocks that could be avoided by pressing a panel with their noses.  In group three, the dogs received the same shocks as those in group two, except that those in this group were not able to control the shock. For those dogs in the third group, the shocks seemed to be completely random and outside of their control. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS The dogs were then placed in a shuttlebox. Dogs from the first and second group quickly learned that jumping the barrier eliminated the shock. Those from the third group made no attempts to get away from the shocks. Due to their previous experience, they had developed a cognitive expectation that nothing they did would prevent or eliminate the shocks. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Learned helplessness has also been associated with several different psychological disorders, such as: depression, anxiety, phobias, shyness and loneliness. As people age, learned helplessness can become something of a vicious cycle. When encountering problems such as anxiety or depression, people may feel that nothing can be done to ease these feelings. THEORY OF MIND Theory of mind is an important social-cognitive skill that involves the ability to think about mental states, both your own and those of others. The greatest growth of this ability is believed to take place primarily during the preschool years between the ages of 3 and 5. Some studies also suggest that individual differences in theory of mind abilities are related to a child's social competence. Researchers have suggested that theory of mind problems are one of the hallmarks of autism. THEORY OF MIND This theory was first postulated in 1978 by David Premack and his colleague Guy Woodruff. The famous experiment of Theory of Mind in children is the Sally Anne Test, done by Wimmer and Perner in 1983. SALLY-ANNE TEST In the experiment, children were presented with two dolls, Sally (who has a basket) and Anne (who has a box). Sally puts a marble in her basket, and leaves the room. While Sally is away, Anne takes the marble from the basket, and hides it in her box. Finally, Sally returns to the room, and the child is asked three questions:  Where will Sally look for her marble? (The “belief” question)  Where is the marble really? (The “reality” question)  Where was the marble at the beginning? (The “memory” question) SALLY-ANNE TEST The critical question is the belief question – if children answer this by pointing to the basket, then they have shown an appreciation that Sally’s understanding of the world doesn’t reflect the actual state of affairs. If they point to the box, then they fail the task, because they haven’t taken into account that they possess knowledge that Sally doesn’t have access to. The reality and memory questions serve as control conditions; if either of these are answered incorrectly, then it might suggest that the child didn’t quite understand what was going on. THEORY OF MIND Forming a theory of mind is critical in our ability to understand ourselves and others. This ability to understand mental states allows people to introspect and consider their own thoughts and mental states. Such self-awareness is important in the formation of a strong sense of self. Our social functioning also hinges on having a theory of mind. By being able to think about what other people are thinking, we can better understand others and predict what they might do next. HALO EFFECT The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about their character. Physical appearance is often a major part of the halo effect. People who are considered attractive tend to be rated higher on other positive traits as well. Psychologist Edward Thorndike first coined the term in a 1920 paper titled "The Constant Error in Psychological Ratings." HALO EFFECT In the experiment described in the paper, Thorndike asked commanding officers in the military to evaluate a variety of qualities in their subordinate soldiers. These characteristics included such things as leadership, physical appearance, intelligence, loyalty, and dependability. Thorndike's goal was to determine how ratings of one quality bled over to assessments of other characteristics. He found that high ratings of a particular quality correlated to high ratings of other characteristics, while negative ratings of a specific quality also led to lower ratings of other characteristics. HALO EFFECT Several different studies have found that when we rate people as good-looking, we also tend to believe that they have positive personality traits and that they are more intelligent. One study even found that jurors were less likely to believe that attractive people were guilty of criminal behavior. However, this attractiveness stereotype can also be a double-edged sword. Other studies have found that while people are more likely to ascribe a host of positive qualities to attractive people, they are also more likely to believe that good-looking individuals are vain, dishonest, and likely to use their attractiveness to manipulate others. The reverse for The halo Effect is called the Devil Effect. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY ASSOC. PROF. ADRIAN BUMBU MD PhD PERSONALITY DISORDERS WHAT ARE PERSONALITY DISORDERS? They include 10 psychiatric conditions that are described in the fifth Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Each of them represents a distinct mental illness defined by specific personality traits. These can be troubling enough to create problems with the daily life. The DSM-5 organizes personality disorders into 3 groups, or clusters, based on shared key features. 10% of the general population and up to half of psychiatric patients in clinical settings have a personality disorder. WHICH ARE THE SYMPTOMS? Personality disorders tend to appear in adolescence or early adulthood. People with personality disorders often don't recognize that they have problems and are confusing and frustrating to people around them (including clinicians). WHICH ARE THE SYMPTOMS? Some symptoms can be divided in 2 categories: Self-identity problems • Unstable self-image • Inconsistencies in values, goals, and appearance Interpersonal problems • Being insensitive to others (unable to empathize) • Difficulty knowing boundaries between themselves and others • Inconsistent, detached, overemotional, abusive, or irresponsible styles of relating WHICH COULD BE THE CAUSES? 50% of personality disorders are attributed to genetic factors and family history. There is also a significant association between a history of childhood trauma as well as verbal abuse. EXEMPLE: children who experience verbal abuse were three times more likely to have borderline, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive or paranoid personality disorders in adulthood High reactivity in children, including sensitivity to light, noise, texture, and other stimuli, has also been linked to certain personality disorders. DIAGNOSIS The criteria to be diagnosed with a personality disorder are the following:  Chronic and pervasive patterns of behavior that affect social functioning, work, school, and close relationships,  Symptoms that affect two or more of the following four areas: thoughts, emotions, interpersonal functioning, impulse control,  Onset of patterns of behavior that can be traced back to adolescence or early adulthood,  Patterns of behaviors that cannot be explained by any other mental disorders, substance use, or medical conditions. CLUSTER A • Paranoid Personality Disorder • Schizoid Personality Disorder • Schizotypal Personality Disorder CLUSTER B • Antisocial Personality Disorder • Borderline Personality Disorder • Histrionic Personality Disorder • Narcissistic Personality Disorder CLUSTER C • Avoidant Personality Disorder • Dependent Personality Disorder • Obsessivecompulsive Personality Disorder PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER Paranoid personality disorder is a chronic and pervasive condition. This disorder is thought to affect between 1.21 to 4.4% of U.S. adults. Individuals with paranoid personality disorder are at a greater risk of experiencing:  depression,  substance abuse,  agoraphobia. PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER Symptoms:  Pervasive distrust and suspicion of others and their motives  Unjustified belief that others are trying to harm or deceive you  Unjustified suspicion of the loyalty or trustworthiness of others  Hesitancy to confide in others due to unreasonable fear that others will use the information against you  Perception of innocent remarks or nonthreatening situations as personal insults or attacks  Angry or hostile reaction to perceived slights or insults  Tendency to hold grudges  Unjustified, recurrent suspicion that spouse or sexual partner is unfaithful SCHIZOID PERSONALITY DISORDER Schizoid personality disorder is a chronic and pervasive condition. This type of personality disorder is believed to be relatively rare and tends to affect more men than women. People with schizoid personality disorder are at risk of experiencing depression. SCHIZOID PERSONALITY DISORDER Symptoms:  Lack of interest in social or personal relationships, preferring to be alone  Limited range of emotional expression  Inability to take pleasure in most activities  Inability to pick up normal social cues  Appearance of being cold or indifferent to others  Little or no interest in having sex with another person SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER Reported prevalence in community studies ranges from 0.6% in a Norwegian sample, to 4.6% in an American sample. There are higher rates among men (4.2%) than women (3.7%). Schizotypal personality disorder can easily be confused with schizophrenia, a severe mental illness in which people lose contact with reality (psychosis). SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER Symptoms:  Peculiar dress, thinking, beliefs, speech or behavior  Odd perceptual experiences, such as hearing a voice whisper your name 