Psychology Notes PDF

Chapter 1. The Science of Psychology \- Critical thinking: \- Systematically questions and evaluates new information using well-supported evidence. \- Weighs facts, considers source, uses logic and reasoning to see whether information makes sense, and considers alternate explanations. \- Nature...

Chapter 1. The Science of Psychology \- Critical thinking: \- Systematically questions and evaluates new information using well-supported evidence. \- Weighs facts, considers source, uses logic and reasoning to see whether information makes sense, and considers alternate explanations. \- Nature vs. nurture: \- An ongoing debate about how an individual\'s development is influenced by their biology and surrounding environment. \- Functionalism: \- An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior. \- Largely attributed to William James, this branch of psychology focused largely on the brain as a whole rather than its components. \- James believed that the brain was much more complicated than its constituent parts. Chapter 9. Human Development \- Stages of prenatal development: \- Zygote: \- From conception to 2 weeks. \- Embryo (also the most sensitive time of prenatal development): \- From 2 weeks to 2 months. \- Fetus: \- From 2 months to birth. \- Teratogens: \- Teratogens are any agent that can harm a developing fetus or embryo. \- Although it varies by person, substances like alcohol, caffeine, drugs, viruses, and bacteria may severely impair development. While some may be resistant to exposure to teratogens, it is recommended that you avoid exposure to such substances. \- Some teratogens also have long-lasting sleeper effects that can occur years after exposure to a teratogen. ex. Fetal alcohol syndrome. \- Brain development: \- Early brain growth contains two important aspects: \- Specific areas of the brain mature and become functional. \- The regions of the brain learn to communicate with one another through synaptic connections. \- The brain matures through a process called myelination which wraps the axons in a fatty insulator that aides in speeding up the transfer of information between neurons. \- At the age of 4, the brain has grown to 80% of adult size. Once most neurons form, the brain undergoes a process called synaptic pruning where the brain preserves connections that it needs for function and removes the excess. \- Lack of communication and a healthy growing environment can lead to an underdeveloped brain in children. \- The development of the prefrontal cortex and limbic systems in adolescence: \- The limbic system develops quite early on at around ages 10-12 and regulates emotions. \- The prefrontal cortex develops later on in the mid-to-late 20s and is responsible for decision making and reasoning. \- Due to this imbalance in development, teenagers often act in accordance to their emotions. \- Puberty \- The onset of puberty marks the beginning of adolescence. \- It is the process leading to sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. \- When puberty occurs it typically varies as a function of the environment and one\'s own biology. \- Erikson's theory of psychosocial development (as it relates to adolescence): \- Erikson\'s theory of psychosocial development stated that each stage of growth is marked by a central crisis that must be resolved. \- In regards to adolescence, the central crisis is establishing a sense of identity. \- Effects of aging on cognition: \- There is a steady decline in the overall health, and the frontal lobes of the brain shrink throughout adulthood. Chapter 3. Biology & Behavior \- Nature & nurture: \- \- Genotype, phenotype, environment, epigenetics \- Mendelian vs. polygenic inheritance: \- Consists of a dominant gene and a recessive gene. \- The dominant gene is expressed if at least one is present in either parent. \- The recessive gene is only expressed when it is matched with the same recessive gene from the other parent. \- Typically, inheritance is polygenic in humans. \- Types of neurons: \- Sensory (afferent) neurons: \- Responsible for detecting stimulus from the environment and passing the information to the brain. \- Motor (efferent) neurons: \- Responsible for the contractions and relaxations in muscles which allow for one to move. \- Interneurons: \- Act as a middle-man between afferent and efferent neurons \\ \- Neural structure, function, communication (synaptic transmission): \- Neuron. \- Dendrite: \- Detects chemical signals sent from neighboring neurons. \- Typically the first step of information transfer between neurons. \- Cell body: \- Collects and integrates the information gathered from the dendrites. \- Axon: \- The axon is responsible for transmitting electrical impulses \- Myelin sheath: \- Fatty material formed by glial cells that encapsulates the length of an axon in order to speed up the transfer of information along said axon. \- Terminal buttons: \- Release chemicals \- Serotonin & dopamine: \- Serotonin: \- Plays an important role in our experience of different moods. \- Dopamine: \- Plays an important role in our experience of rewards. \- Cerebral cortex and corpus callosum: \- Cerebral cortex: \- The outer layer of the brain\'s surface which is responsible for language, learning, memory, emotions, etc. \- Occipital lobe: \- Responsible for vision. \- Temporal lobe: \- Responsible for hearing and memory. \- Parietal lobe: \- Responsible for processing touch sensations and spatial awareness. \- Frontal lobe: \- Responsible for thought, planning, and movement (motor functions). \- Corpus callosum: \- Connects the left and right hemispheres together and allows for the transfer of information between the two hemispheres. \- Autonomic nervous system: \- Regulates involuntary bodily processes like heart rate, digestion, breathing, blood pressure, and pupil dilation. \- It carries signals from the glands and organs to the central nervous system which consists of the brain and the spinal cord. \- Plasticity : \- The capacity of the brain to be affected by experience. \- Refers to the brain\'s ability to adapt to new circumstances. \- Neurogenesis: \- Refers to the formation of new neurons. \- Critical period: \- The time during which particular experiences must occur for development to proceed normally. \- The brain is exceedingly plastic at this time and can reorganize itself to respond to the surrounding environment. Chapter 2. Research Methodology: \- What makes good theory: \- Good theory should generate testable questions and variables that are able to be measured and are also repeatable. \- The scientific method: \- This is a procedure for observing and measuring phenomena to answer empirical questions. \- Aims to be more objective than a casual observation and also aims to be bias-free. \- Three elements: \- Theory: \- An explanation or idea of how a certain phenomenon works. \- Hypothesis: \- A specific, testable prediction about the outcome that would best support the theory. \- Research: \- The systematic and careful collection of data. \- Three types of studies: \- Descriptive: \- Involves observing and noting the behavior of people or other animals to provide a systematic and objective analysis of the behavior. \- Correlational: \- Examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them. \- Is very useful for finding relationships between different variables. \- Although there might be correlation between variables, this type of study is unable to establish causation because there was no experimental manipulation done to the variables to see whether they affect each other. \- There also may be external, unmeasured factors that affect the relationship between variables that may not have been recorded in observation. \- Experimental: \- Tests a casual hypothesis by measuring and manipulating variables. \- This allows for strong evidence for cause and effect as there has been testing on the effects of one variable on the other. \- Due to the highly controlled environment of these experiments, it might not be applicable in the real world where multiple external factors may affect the outcome. \- It also may not be very cost effective/time-effective. \- Reliability vs. validity: \- Reliability: \- Refers to the consistency of results. \- If a result yields a consistent result, then the result is reliable. \- Validity: \- Refers to the accuracy of the results. \- If a result yields accurate values, then the result is valid. \- A result can be reliable but not valid if it yields the same results, but is not accurately measuring something. \- Internal vs. external validity: \- Internal validity: \- Refers to the degree to which a study can establish a casual relationship between the independent and dependent variables without any external interference. \- External validity: \- Refers to the extent to which the results of the study can be generalized to settings, populations, and times beyond the specific conditions of the study. \- Correlations: \- Positive correlation: \- Both variables either increase or decrease together. \- Negative correlation: \- As one variable increases, the other decreases. \- Correlation coefficient: \- Ranges between -1 and 1. \- The closer the absolute value is to 1 the better the correlation. If the value is closer to 0, there is little correlation. \- Observer bias: \- Errors that may occur because of an observer\'s expectations or preconceived notions. \- Random assignment vs. random sampling: \- Random sampling: \- Refers to the process of selecting participants from a population to be included in a study. \- Random assignment: \- Refers to the process of randomly allocating the selected participants into different experimental groups within a study. \- Significance testing: \- Is used to test whether the results of a study are likely to be real or if they occurred by chance. Chapter 5. Sensation & Perception \- Sensation vs. perception: \- Sensation: \- The process by which our sensory organs detect external stimuli. \- Perception: \- The process by which our brain interprets the sensory signals. \- This is influenced by past experiences, expectations, and context. \- Perception pathway (and the exception to this pathway): \- Sensory receptors: \- Specialized receptor cells that detect physical or chemical stimulus and conveys the information to connecting neurons. \- The connecting neurons then send the information to the brain in the thalamus where it is then sent to the primary sensory cortex in the parietal lobe where it is interpreted. \- Smell is the exception. \- Sensory thresholds: \- Absolute threshold: \- The minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation 50% of the time. \- Signal detection theory: \- \- Bottom-up, top-down processing: \- Top-down processing: \- Using preexisting knowledge and context from prior experiences to interpret sensory data. \- Bottom-down processing: \- Perception starts with sensory input. There are no prior experiences to judge from. \- Visual pathway: \- Rods: \- Responsible for detecting black and white. \- Helps with night vision. \- Cones: \- Responsible for color vision. \- Women tend to have more cones than men. \- Senses and their receptors: \- Hearing: \- Vibration and movement cause hair cells to move and transmit a signal to the auditory nerve and beyond. \- Touch: \- There are many different touch receptors for temperature, pain, and pressure. \- Fast and slow pain fibers (and myelination): \- Fast fibers: \- Sharp, fast pain for immediate detection and protection. \- More myelinated to allow for faster travel of the pain signal. \- Slow fibers: \- For more chronic, dull pains. \- Are more useful for recuperation.