Psychology: The Science of the Mind PDF

Chapter 1: The Science of the Mind Psych provides context to certain behaviours. (introspection(observe thoughts, feelings): thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, MRI diff parts lust and love brain light up). Neural and social perspective for taste acquisition. What is Psych (psyche=mind) ology: -...

Chapter 1: The Science of the Mind Psych provides context to certain behaviours. (introspection(observe thoughts, feelings): thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, MRI diff parts lust and love brain light up). Neural and social perspective for taste acquisition. What is Psych (psyche=mind) ology: - The scientific study of behavior (observable action), mental processes and brain function (included since better research). - Study of the mind (brain activity such as thoughts emotions and behaviors). - (subjective to objective testing Prior research used introspection current use MRI and other brain imaging - Hub Science: connected to other sciences, relates back to people (part of 7 major sciences (physics, chem, math, Why Do We Study Psych? - Deeper understanding of people/self. Human are social - Improve critical thinking - Understand real world problems pandemic to poverty - People Behaviors (WHY) Origins: - 1870s study, Assrya 6000 BCE dreams - Breaks down into **Philosophy** (The discipline that systematically examines basic concepts, including the source of knowledge) and **natural sciences** (Sciences that study the physical and biological events that occur in nature). - Aristotle (384-322 BCE) John Locke (17 century) Romanian Kids - Philosophical Roots: - Nature of self, early experience, Free will, origin of knowledge - Biology vs environment (self interest and community mindset) - Natural Science Roots: - Physician laying brain/NS. Observe nerve with light microscope (retinal nerve = single info single nerve) - Helmholtz (1821-1894): react to thigh touch faster than toe touch its closer - Two Merging Disciplines: - Physiological and psychological merge in philosophy. - Hear range test Fechner (1801-1889): mental process study Begin: - Merge philosophy and scientific reasoning - Willhelm Wundt Structuralism (1832-1920): - 1879 Reaction time experiment (ball drop strike telegraph key) - Perception (mental experience hierarchy) made of different sensations. - Titchener (1867-1923) structuralism small mental experience elements - Gesalt Psychology - Reject structuralism (Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler) : Form or Whole, break experience into parts lose information (diff process visual info) - Willaim James Functionalism (1842-1910): - Purposeful behavior leads to survival, not look at structure of mind by WHY process this way. (DUE to Charles Darwin) - STREAM of consciousness: evolution - Clinical Roots: Freud - Psych disorders due to supernatural but eventually 17-18 century broken down in to medical (physical cause or med) and psych (trauma cause behavior) model - Depressed: physical and experimental comp - Sigmund Freud: life experience impacts behavior, people became societal civilized (naturally aggressive). - Psychodynamic theory: unconscious mind, dream analyze, study personality, psychoanalysis (but theories not experimentally testable) - Humanistic Psych: behaviourism vs Freud: third separate force: Human nature Good or Evil. People are good and are corrupted by society. - Client centered therapy (Roger 1902-1987): active listen. Bets for communication in parental, groups and politics - Behavior and Cognitive Revolution - 20 century: observable behavior/measurable, study animals. - Behaviorist observe learning (behaviorism: an approach that features the study and measure of observable behaviors, links) - Pavlov (1849-1936): associate signal with food (salvation) Classical Conditioning: humans or primitive organism. - Watson (1879-1958): learning with rats: blank slate approach to form behavior (use in Ads). Links cues and behaviours. - Thorndike (1874-1949): law of Effect: effects of consequences, pleasant outcome repeat behave, unpleasant outcome no repeat - Skinner: (1903-1990): frequent repeat behaviour - Cognitive revolution: private and internal mental process (info processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving) Neisser (1928-2012), comp models to observable behave - Newell and Simon AI with human info process model - 1990 identify brain structure and function Perspectives: - Answer the questions but must build database POV, answer separate questions. - Different fields use diff theories and methods - Five Perspectives: Biological, Cognitive, Developmental, Social, Mental, (54 additional divisions) - **biological psychology**: The psycho logical perspective that focuses on the relationships between mind and behavior, as well as their underlying biological pro cesses, including genetics, biochemistry, anatomy, and physiology; also known as behavioral neuroscience. **Behavior and mental process.** - **evolutionary psychology** A psycho logical perspective that investigates how physical structure and behavior have been shaped by their contributions to survival and reproduction. Branch of Bio perspective. Functionalism current behave advantageous - **cognitive psychology** A psychological perspective that investigates information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. being able to remember imp memories - **developmental psychology** A psycho logical perspective that examines the normal changes in behavior that occur across the life span. age memory changes - **social psychology** A psychological perspective that examines the effects of the social environment on the behavior of individuals. diversity and difference, own realities. Presence of other alters data retrieval. - Behave varies: age, disability, socioeconomic, ethnicity, sexuality, race, personality (thinking, behave or feel), cultural diversity (variation practices, values and goals of group) - **clinical psychology** A psychological perspective that seeks to explain, define, and treat abnormal behaviors. positive psychology. - Integrating Five: - Single perspective not enough for psychological processes. Understand romance (culture, social, cognition, personality). Use the revolution to study mind. Neuroscience: learn, memory motivations. - Useful study culture and psychology for a diverse understanding. (lack of diversity perspective) Mean to Be Psychologist - 6% psychology bachelors: research or rehab, or use degree in people-oriented job (manage, journalism, HR) hub relation - Masters: therapist or teacher, psychologist academic or career counsel - Dr. research or teach, less people oriented pick a perspective - Integrated training more internships Chapter 2: The Measure of the Mind Stuttering (no cure more treatments): long vowel, difficult to start speech (more common for men), many myths around why and remedies. How to make logical cause and effects (Science). Science: we have a logical way to study. Methods to gain knowledge. A method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation. (opposite is having faith-blind belief in something). REPEATABILITY Objectivity: The practice of basing conclusions on facts, without the influence of personal emotion and bias - Develop Mindset: - Science is about objectivity (based facts) (not subjectivity-reflect on personal POV) - By definition human observation are subjective (cannot rely on introspection) - Use systemic observation (not hit or miss) -cannot limit observation to own small circle (HIT or MISS) - Confirmation Bias: The tendency to notice and remember instances that sup port your beliefs more than instances that contradict them-support stereotypes - Not end all be all: science changes daily - Critical Thinking: The ability to think clearly, rationally, and independently - Follow logic whilst ID mistakes (not gut feeling-easier to recall and believe info may be assumed correct when that is not the case, images create inferences, prior knowledge alters info) - - Scientific Enterprise: it is a process - Theory A set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena-best reality model (but can be said as a guess) - Theory make predictions (sometimes with math- to explain why one instance would occur) - Hypothesis: A proposed explanation for a situation, usually taking the form "If A hap pens, then B will be the result.-educated guess based on variables (cannot be proved it is true but that certain instances are false) - Communicate Science: - Peer review The process of having other experts examine research prior to its publication. - Replication Repeating an experiment and producing the same results.-can get same results Conduct Research: depending on Q select specific method - Descriptive Method: survey case study, observation (vulnerable to bias): Research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations. (observe associations-gen hypothesis - Case Study: An in-depth analysis of the behavior of one person or a small number of people. - Interview, personality test, cognitive test. (gen or test hypothesis) - Molaison: amnesic patient (surgery stop seizures but cause memory gap) - Mike Carneal: played shooter games but went and shot up school (interview him to do case study)-Schizophrenia - Advantage: learn unusual situation to test hypothesis - Naturalistic Observation: An in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting. (large group study): can generalize findings-good to gen hypothesis but not to test - Jane Goodall chimpanzees (omnivores) - Violent video games and observe aggression (natural insight) - Knowing being under observation may behave different (unethical if not told) - survey A descriptive method in which participants are asked the same questions. - Samples: Suset if population studied (large makes good result) - Population: entire group sample studied from - Self reporting case diff answers to conform (lies can alter answers) - Correlational Method: two variables interact: A measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables. -relate two different information's - variable A factor that has a range of values. - measure A method for describing a variable's quantity (how much) - Use stats to evaluate (relate two but not cause and effect-no causality-linked, associated) - Positive: increase one variable increase other - Negative: increase one variable decrease other - Zero: no systematic relationship (not useful information) - third variable A variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest (confounding) - Experimental Method: test hypothesis: cause and effect, one variable change to another (who what dep hypothesis) - experiment A research method that tests hypotheses and allows researchers to make conclusions about causality. - independent variable An experimental variable controlled and manipulated by the experimenter; the "if A happens" part of a hypothesis. - dependent variable A measure that demonstrates the effects of an independent variable; the "result" part of a hypothesis. - Control group A group that experiences all experimental procedures, with the exception of exposure to the independent variable.- as similar to experimental group - experimental group A group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable. - random assignment The procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group in an experiment. -stop them from altering behaviour - confounding variable Variables that are irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested but can alter a researcher's conclusions.-prevent with random assignment (situational confound also alter) - "qausi experiment: true experiment without random assignment (eg cant separate for gender) - Disadvantages: artificial participants can alter behavior (need to be transparent due to ethics) - Operationalization: define variables to make them measurable, what is measured and how to quantify it - Hot sauce paradigm (one person give hot sauce to another (how much=aggression) - Meta Analysis: Many methods/experiment to answer hypothesis: A statistical analysis of many previous experiments on a single topic- but may have publication bias: The possibility that published studies are not representative of all work done on a particular phenomenon. - Multi perspectives: consider many aspects of research (sociality, individuality) - Effect of Time: - cross-sectional study An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages. -COHORT effect: may mask or distort results (generational effect) - longitudinal study An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals at intervals over a long period of time-expensive and time consuming - mixed longitudinal design A method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies.-faster and less cohort effect Data to Conclusion: results to interpretation - Valid/Reliable Measure: - Data only good as measure (reliable and validity) - reliability The consistency of a measure, including test--retest, interrater, inter method, and internal consistency. -precision - Inter method reliability: positive correlation - validity A quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions (i.e., the measure evaluates the concept that it was designed to do)-accauracy - do they measure to predetermined value - Descriptive Statistics: Statistical methods that organize data into meaningful pat terns and summaries, such as finding the average value - Organize data in patterns and summaries. -use frequency distribution - Central Tendency: most typical data score - mean The numerical average of a set of scores. - median The halfway mark in a set of data, with half of the scores above it and half below. -close to mean (extreme outliers adjusted) - mode The most frequently occurring score in a set of data. (bimodal) - Variance: clustered scores, standard deviation (how tightly clustered-A measure of how tightly clustered around the mean a group of scores is) - Normal Curve: symmetrical, near the mean - Descriptive States w/ two variables: scatterplot, correlation coefficient (-1.00 to +1.00)-closer to 1 better correlation (0 no correlation) - Inferential Stats: draw inference from data (make conclusion about population from sample- be careful generalize) - normal distribution A symmetrical probability function. - inferential statistics Statistical methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations. - generalize To extend conclusions to larger populations outside your research sample. - null hypothesis A hypothesis stating the default position that there is no real difference between two measures. -default hypothesis (gen alternative hypothesisp\>0.05% true null if not alt true)) - statistical significance A standard for deciding whether an observed result is likely in the event the null hypothesis is true - Disadvantage: test hypothesis generates discrete values rather than spectrum as needed in psychology Ethics: what basis can and cannot do (use guidelines: need to go through review board) (IRB and IACUC) process for federal funding) - Participants: Human involved voluntary (not coerced): make reasonable incentive, and have informed consent (details of study, Permission obtained from a research participant after the risks and benefits of an experimental procedure have been thoroughly explained) -can they provide IC (capacity-then proxy makes decision) - Do not harm patients (mild deception may be needed for information to be accurate), privacy very important, confidentiality (protect people data)-BAD: Tuskegee Syphilis experiment (study progression and did not get treatment) - Animals: some accept some opposed (3 R in Uk Reduce, Replace, Refine), - Must show clear purpose for animal use (min the animal pain, use federal regulation to maintain standards) Chapter 3: Evolving Mind Same DNA but why can twins develop different why do cells become different (Gene: ON/OFF alter DNA function-food and other environment) Nature Vs Nurture: intertwined, are they different in outcome (Francis Galton) - nature The contributions of heredity to our physical structure and behaviors. - nurture The contributions of environment factors and experience to our physical structure and behaviors. Building Blocks Of Behavior: - genotype An individual's profile of alleles. DNA - phenotype An observable characteristic. Seen - gene A small segment of DNA located in a particular place on a chromosome that pro duces a protein - gene expression The process in which genetic instructions are converted into a feature of a living cell. GEN protein (specific part of DNA used) - allele One of several versions of a gene, as in having an A, B, or O blood type allele. - homozygous Having two of the same alleles for a gene. - heterozygous Having two different alleles for a gene. - recessive A feature of an allele that pro duces a phenotype only in the homozygous condition. - dominant A feature of an allele that determines a phenotype in either the homozygous or the heterozygous condition - Genetic Variation: sibling not mean same appearance or behaviour (egg and sperm 23 xsomes can vary in combo) - Relatedness: The probability that two people share the same allele from a common ancestor. Variable but sim to relatives (computed with a few generation back) - Sex Xsomes: 22 (matched xsome), X (200 genes) and Y (less than 100) carry diff gene - X or Y linked genetic diseases (X recessive disease females often cares and Males often present it) Genetics: though some shared genes some different creates difference btw species - Behavioral + Heritability - behavioral genetics The scientific field that attempts to identify and understand links between genetics and behavior. - heritability The statistical likelihood that variations observed in a population are because of genetics-study with compare mono and dizygotic twins (0 if no phenotypic variations, 1 if all difference phenotypical due to gene) Normal 0.30-0.60 (always relate to population not persons) - need to consider the environment (variable environment decrease heritability) useful study twins (adaptive family)-identical vs fraternal twins - concordance rates The statistical prob ability that a trait in one person will be shared by another; usually discussed in relation to identical and fraternal twins.-psych disorder study useful) - Candidate Genes - 100% genes but unique genomes (diff alleles)-cannot find genes that encode for behaviours (can contribute to behavior along with NS) - candidate gene A gene that has a greater impact on a trait of interest than other genes. - genomewide association study (GWAS) A scan of complete sets of DNA from many participants, which is performed to look for variations associated with a particular phenotype, condition, or disease.-full genome sequencing (scan genotype to look for distinct phenotype, disease) - Epigenetics: The study of gene-- environment interactions in the production of phenotypes (same genes does not gen same phenotype cause of environment) - Genes turn on/off based on internal signals (adult slowest change fetus most(prenatal trauma more vulnerable) - Lasting/reversible changes: RNA interference, RNA editing, histone modification (DNA wound around, tail or core interact w/ Rg proteins alter function), DNA methylation (add Me turn genes off) - Nuture long lasting genes ins stress environment, helps us study psychological disorders - No single gene links risk of psychological disorders more link w/methylation or histone modification Evolution: descent from common ancestor, mating particular traits (artificial vs natural selection) - Mechanism: - evolution Descent with modification from a common ancestor. - natural selection The process by which survival and reproduction pressures act to change the frequency of alleles in subsequent generations. -the preferred matable, survival trait (FITNESS) - fitness The ability of one genotype to re produce more successfully relative to other genotypes-best survival in certain environment - mutation An error that occurs when DNA is replicated. (most silent) - migration Movement to a new location.(alter survival all allele frequency) - genetic drift Change in a population's genes from one generation to the next be cause of chance or accident. (decrease certain allele frequency) - Adaptation: A change because of natural selection - Create new phenotype (behavior or anatomy) increase FITNESS - Random events increase adaption - Evolution of Human Brain: NS newer animals vs plants, primitive animals had brains in neural net, brains in the head occurred more with skeletons (hominin-similar bipedal with brain(homo erectus closest) homo sapiens double sized brain) - Complex social behaviour makes use most evolved (to other large brain animals) - Contemporary Human Brain - Equilibrium between brain size and function (20% brain resources but 2% body mass) brain size not changed but, human IQ increased (but environment alter gene function) Influence: adaptive behavior (better to hide increase survive behavior phenotype how to study genes) - Evolutionary Psychological perspective: - Behaviour useful to survival and reproduction - FUNCTIONALISM (William) - Social Behaviour - Roots of Sociality (some physical evidence helps but limited - Sociality prevents attacks (decrease vulnerability) fish school safer than lone fish (better even with increased competition) - Two animals work together increase reproductive success and survival - Ache coop with each other - Coop useful interact but, selfish interact both parties lose, altruism - Altruism (Behavior on behalf of another that fails to benefit or harms the individual performing it.)-one sacrifice increase survival of groups relatedness - reciprocal altruism Help that you provide for another person when you expect the person to return the favor in the future (return the favor) - Sexual Selections: The development of traits that help an individual compete for mates - Parental Investment: F or M bare most cost to produce offspring (mom max child offspring by choosing a active father and does so select facially less testosterone features) - Traits influences by sexual selection: intrasexual selection (males fight (bigger antlers), male dominance or intersexual (M or F chooses partner) in humans use humors (use uncommon words - Culture: shape brain - Social, knowledge, practice, values, goals, laws - Culture tradition alter patterns of interaction and reproductive success (Yanomamo men more children but Waorani more survival) - Decrease hunter gather society to agriculture society changed the thought from society egalitarian to patriarchal. Now society going back to egalitarian - Increase society side increase diff cultures But overall values and goals similar (society and culture generate belonging millions of membership need to belong) - **LONELINESS can be genetic heritable trait** Chapter 4: Biological Mind: Mental behaviour can help viral survival, exclude socially increase risk of viral exposure (isolation increase viral threat through hormone viral preparedness (survival increase physical fitness) Biological Psych: mind results of nerve cells (Descartes-dualism competes with monism). Behavioral neuroscience brain activity and behave/mental processes. Hormone release brain response (behave/cognition linked with biology (back and forth). - How we think can alter biology response - Early Attempts - Study structure and function (brain imagery rather than clinical and autopsy (though good) with understanding mind better) - Mix clinical with autopsy (heart was brain activity (Aristotle), Phrenology skull bumps = personality and traits (size and bulge would generalized behavior) good told us certain parts of brain specific function - Contemporary Approaches - Mordern: Santiago Ramon (microscopic NS) + Jakcson: NS made of cells (Golgi single cell network her own stain provided that multiple cells Neuron Doctrine) - Jackson: observed seizures, NS hierarchy complex activities more evolved area used, impulse control (unrestrained behavior primitive parts of brain) - Emerging Neuroscience Nervous System: intricate overlapping patterns (CNS and PNS) - CNS: brain + spinal cord (continuous tissue unit goes to nerve branch into PNS), bone protected - spinal cord A long cylinder of neural tissue extending from the medulla of the brain down to the middle of the back; part of the CNS - PNS: nerves not in CNS. peripheral nervous system (PNS) The nerves exiting the CNS that carry sensory and motor information to and from the rest of the body CNS: most heavy bone protecting - Human brain average size: 5½ inches (14 centimeters) wide, 6½ inches (17 centimeters) long, and 32 3 inches (9 centimeters) high, and weighs about 3 pounds (1.5 kilograms - Spinal cord weighs about 1.2 ounces (35 grams). its diameter ranges from about 0.4 inches (1 centimeter) to 0.6 inches (1.5 centimeters) (mostly bone SC itself is small) - Protected with bone, meninges (vaccination), CSF protect brain and SC (fluid flow around brain +SC (cushion for trauma) hydrocephalous if blocked CSF - CSF floats can gen false signal (useful for diagnostic) - SC, brainstem, +cerebellum: - SC: brain to spine: conduit nerve fibers to muscle (31 pairs to body) - Reflexes done by SC (knee jerk reflex (diabetes effect this) - Reflexes: study, reflex arc - Sensory Neurons: external to CNS, knee jerk muscle jerk from motor neuron - Motor neuron: SC to muscles (body) - Interneurons: bridge between sensory and motor (not in knee jerk) - Brainstem - Embryo three bulges: cerebral hemisphere (forebrain), hindbrain, midbrain - Supports blossom of cerebral hemisphere (Branch cranial nerves same function as SC nerve - Hindbrain: medulla, pons, cerebellum - medulla The brainstem structure that lies just above the spinal cord. Bundle of nerve fibers from higher brain levels (HR, BREATHING, BP) - pons A part of the brainstem located be tween the medulla and the midbrain. Sleep, arousal, facial expression, BRIDGE - Midbrain: The part of the brainstem that lies between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres. Opiate painkillers such as morphine and OxyContin produce some of their analgesic effects by interacting with opioid receptors in the periaqueductal gray. - Periaqueductal sensory reflex, pain, and movementendorphins receptors (decrease pain messages sent to brain), also maternal love (serotonin and NEarousal, mood, aggression) - Reticular formation: arousal, fast(awake) and slow (sleep): length of BS.A collection of structures located along the midline of the brainstem that participate in mood, arousal, and sleep. - Cerebellum: A structure attached to the brainstem that participates in skilled movement and, in humans, complex cognitive processing. Balance and motor coordination (alcohol effects first), most neurons and connected to CNS (ancient presence - Automates movements, Sensory disorders = abnormalities in cerebellum - Subcortical Structures: self aware, move, communication, regulation, below cerebral cortex (CC) (LIMBIC SYSemotional brain) - thalamus A subcortical structure in volved with the processing of sensory information, states of arousal, and learning and memory. - Gate way to cortex first here to CC, sensation, memory and consciousness (linked to memory lost (lesion in T), and cortical neuron to sleep (tune out) - basal ganglia A collection of subcortical structures that participate in reward and the control of movement - Structure curve around thalamus - Parkinsons degenerate of BaP, psychological OCD, ADHD, Autism cannot control voluntary movement - Hypothalamus: A subcortical structure that participates in the regulation of thirst, temperature, hunger, sexual behavior, and aggression. - Motivation and homeostasis (feeding, fleeting, fighting, sex), ANS and endocrine with hormones - Hippocampus: A subcortical structure that participates in memory and stress. (seahorse shape), long term memories (retrieves stored memories), - if damaged cannot make new memories - managed stress (stress receptors not ideal depression) - Cingulate Cortex: A subcortical structure above the corpus callosum. Its anterior (forward) segment participates in decision making and emotion, and its posterior (rear) segment participates in memory and visual processing. - ACC w/ hypo controls ANS (decision and emotion) - PCC memory visual - Amygdala A subcortical structure located in the temporal lobe believed to participate in emotional processing - Almond shape - Senory info emotion and motivation - Perceives threat and fear (stimuli, emotion social behave and reward) - Behavior deficient damage amygdala (can ID emotions cannot ID fear), autism abnormal Amydala) - Nucleus Accumbens: A subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction - Reward and pleasure circuit - Midbrain cell body activity social inclusion ( with social scene active if high inclusion low if high exclusion) - Cerebral Cortex (CC): The thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres. - corpus callosum A wide band of nerve fibers connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres. - White matter(subcortical structures) + CC =cortex - Cortex wrinkled and folded to max use) - EACH LOBE paired - Localization: - False phrenology but localize functions in cortex sensory - (occipital lobe-vision, temporal lobe-auditory, parietal-touch), - Motor (rear frontal), - Association (not specific sense or motor function) - Frontal Lobe: The most forward of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex; location of the primary motor cortex and areas responsible for some of the most complex cognitive processes - Cognitive functions - Brocas area -adj gen speech, damage hard to talk - prefrontal cortex The most forward part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex.\--\> behave, attention, judgement - Abnormalities: schiz ADHD - GAGE: damaged frontal lobe, impulsive, angry and unreasonable (lobotomy treatment) - Alien Hand Syndrome: not control on alien limb (does not realize limb as own) - orbitofrontal cortex A part of the pre frontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participate in impulse controlsocial deficit (intelligence same) (OFC) last to matute - EVR: harder to do daily task - Anti Social disorder: disregard others, smaller OFC than normal, better to get immediate gratification - Occipital Lobe:.The lobe of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain; location of the primary visual cortex. (color, shade, border) link to brain to help recognize visual images - Temporal Lobe: The lobe of the cerebral cortex that curves around the side of each hemisphere; location of the primary auditory cortex process sound, some recognition task/faces (damaged cannot recognize ppl by face) - Wernicke Damage speak fluent speak and cannot comprehend speech - Parietal Lobe: The lobe of the cerebral cortex that lies at the top of the brain be tween the frontal and the occipital lobes; location of the primary somatosensory cortex, touch , pain, T, (time and space) - Some Vision (coordinate vision and movement) and taste - Neglect Syndrome - Mirror Neurons: certain actions brain more active - Mechanism Understand action and intentions of others - MRI observe activity - Actions, emotions, intentions - Right and Left Brain - Lateralization: localization R/L hemisphere (LH does right side, data, movement and same RH) - Split brain operation: cut CorC to treat Seizures no change in person treated seizure - Handedness links laterization (right hand left language lateralize (opp left), math,. Logical, intuition, arts) - MYTHS: hemispheres linked can jump btw each: hemisphere dominance does not predict occupations - Function: multitask, LH and RH survival get language but vulnerable (schiz/autism) PNS: input commands to data (SNS and ANS) (CNS+endocrine= PNS) - Somatic NS: The part of the peripheral nervous system that brings sensory information to the central nervous system and transmits commands to the muscles.\--\> VOLUNTARY - Muscle functions and sensory to CNS (31 pairs SC and 12 cranial nerves) - ANS: The divi sion of the peripheral nervous system that directs the activity of glands, organs, and smooth muscles.\--\> INVOLUNTARY - Tissue control, cruise control - sympathetic nervous system The division of the autonomic nervous system that coordinates arousal.\--\> stress - parasympathetic nervous system The division of the autonomic nervous system associated with rest, repair, and energy storage. calm storage (base line) - enteric nervous system A division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the gastrointestinal system second brain (sim \# nerves in SC) - Enteric +endocrine digestion (AUTISM) - Vagus Nerve gut brain access (microbiome, hunger, full) - Endocrine System: A system responsible for the release of hormones into the blood stream - Long distance communication (hypothalamus) - Metabolism, sex, growth (pineal(sleep melatonin), pituitary, thyroid adrenal, ovaries) - Pituitary Gland: master, majority activity hormones (Rg hypothalamus) - Oxytocin and vasopressin memory, trust, social, recognition, resilience - GH good for athletes, sex hormones - Thyroid metabolism (low level sim depression) - Adrenal Stress Neurons Communicate: Neurons + glia (two steps electrical then chemical) - Neurons + Glia: - neuron A cell of the nervous system that is specialized to send and receive neural messages. - glia Nervous system cells that perform a variety of support functions, including formation of the blood--brain barrier and myelin. (neuron structure matrix, some mobile clean up) MAKE BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER psychoactive pen BBB - myelin The insulating material covering some axons. faster propagation - demyelination: Alzheimer's - CNS damage permanent but not PNS (cannot reattach limbs) - cell body The large, central mass of a neuron, containing the nucleus. (translation) - insoluble neural membrane (grey when dyed for staining) - channels for chemical communication - axon The branch of a neuron that is usually responsible for transmitting information to other neurons. (OUTPUT) one per neuron - dendrite A branch from the neural cell body that usually receives input from other neurons. (INPUT) - axon terminal: synaptic vesicles - Neural Signal: signal electrical to chemical - Electrical Signal: squid AXON study axon - action potential The electrical signal arising in a neuron's axon junction to terminal (ALL OR NONE) - resting potential, The measure of the electrical charge across a neural membrane when the neuron is not processing information (not reading) interior negative charge - depolarized(decrease diff) gen AP (threshold) hyperpolarize (increase diff) repolarize, open and close for ions to pass through (NA/K) - Myelinated faster propagation (jumps btw the nodes of Ranvier rich in NA channels) - Chemical Signal - synapse A point of communication be tween two neurons. (no touch but use chemicals) on dendrites - neurotransmitter A chemical messenger that communicates across a synapse. - receptor A special channel in the mem brane of a neuron that interacts with neurotransmitters released by other neurons. - Has NT in vesicles and then blend with membrane in synaptic gap and receiving neuron has receptors - reuptake A process in which molecules of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap are returned to the axon terminal from which they were released. (transporters return to releasing neuron) - Drugs can alter reuptake cocaine, prozac amphetamines - Excitatory decrease the depolarization the receiving neuron makes AP easier - Inhibitory increase hyperpolarization receiving neuron harder AP tetanus (damage muscle contraction inhibitory only, so always excitatory response) - SUMMATION: decided to make decision based on data - Neurotransmitter: 50 chemicals - Ach: - in synapse for muscle (useful pesticide) muscle interference, - ANS glands and organs - Brain circuit learning/memory (Alzheimer first to go) - Nicotine - NE: arousal and vigilance (SNS) - Emergency response - Psych (Bipolar and PTSD) - Dopamine: planning, move, rewards (survival or repro) - Parkinson, Schiz, ADHD - Meth and Cocaine (increase these circuits) - Serotonin: sleep, appetite, mood, aggression - Endorphins: morphine: pain response (RUNNER high Opoids mimic synapse response at receptors) - Testosterone or Estrogen (LUSTposterior Insula) and Oxytocin bonding (LOVE Anterior Insula) Chapter 5: Perceiving Mind Sense to Perception - sensation The process of detecting environmental stimuli or stimuli arising from the body. reality in/out body detected by NS to increase survival - perception The process of interpreting sensory information diff in sensation (how is it interpreted) - Sensory Info to Brain: physical to bio sensory (stimulus gets response) transduction The translation of incoming sensory information into neural signals. - Constructs: (unfamiliar more attention due to survival - sensory adaptation The tendency to pay less attention to a nonchanging source of stimulation. - High intensity draw attention since risk survival - Divided attention(not all info can be processed thus selective input ADHD (disrupt) - bottom-up processing Perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions. - Visual reality from light to brain (more common and better response) - top-down processing A perceptual process in which memory and other cognitive processes are required for interpreting incoming sensory information - Use prior knowledge (complex stimuli) - Perceptions - psychophysics The study of relationships between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce. - absolute threshold The smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected. (detected 50% of time) - difference threshold The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli. (at least 50%) - Amount of difference depends on stimuli size - signal detection The analysis of sensory and decision-making processes in the detection of faint, uncertain stimuli. (sensation plus cognitive) - Signal Detection: some uncertainty in stimuli (personal feelings decisions) See: vision The sense that allows us to process reflected light. (50%) - Visual Stimulus: VL (radiation of electromagnetic spectrum), wave movement (color=wavelength, Amp=brightness) - Biology of Vision: - cornea The clear surface at the front of the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina. bend light to back of eye - pupil An opening formed by the iris. - iris The brightly colored circular muscle surrounding the pupil of the eye. adj pupil open to amount of light (constrict relax, arousal dilated) - lens The clear structure behind the pupil that bends light toward the retina. muscle alter shape to see near or distance - retina Layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye neural network process light - landmarks on retina (optic disk (no rods and cones (blind spot)) - rods and cones transduce light (passes BV and neurons prior wee ignore them (sensory adaptation) - fovea An area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision. project obj, central vision - We see images upside down (convex-Rg, concave how retina sees before corrected: - Photoreceptors - cone A photoreceptor in the retina that processes color and fine detail 6M bright light, color, and sharp image - rod A photoreceptor specialized to detect dim light. 10 M dim light (more in peripheral vision), no color image and no sharp image - Ganglion cells: 50000: pupil reflex, and brightness (bio clock) - Visual Pathways - optic nerve The nerve exiting the retina of the eye. axons in GC - optic tracts Nerve pathways traveling from the optic chiasm(cross over of visuals to hemispheres helps with depth) to the thalamus, hypothalamus (wake cycles and reflex), and midbrain (thalamus to occipital lobe (process finally here, shape, location, color, and move) and amygdala (emotional judgement). Temporal (shape, color, recognize faces), Parietal (process move) - Perception/Cognition: - Color Vision: colored lights mix primary (white light (red, green blue)) - trichromatic theory A theory of color vision based on the existence of different types of cones for the detection of short, medium, and long wavelengths. three cones (short, medium, long wavelength (detect all three response) - less than three types color blind (one type or none) - Cannot explain color after images - opponent process theory A theory of color vision that suggests we have a red--green color channel and a blue--yellow color channel in which activation of one color in each pair inhibits the other color. - Better for color after images (REBOUND EFFECT) (competing channels inhibit activity in channel for increase in another) - Recognizing Objects: Hierarchical - Bottom up: info retina to visual bulti simpler input (not ideal for signal neuron theory) - Not consider top down (knowledge and memory) - Reality built on individuals, math model pattens and lines - Low contrast less difference in graying compared to high frequency (animal perception) range of grating function contrast and frequency - Gesalt Psych - Reject Wundt Structuralism: don't lose data as parts consider whole - Natural organization causes recognize objects - Proximity: objects close each other grouped together (similar stimuli grouped) - Continuity: smooth lines belong together (good for patten not overall ID) - Closure: complete image even with blanks (we mentally fill it in) - Simplicity: simplicity solution to a give problem - Depths - 2D projection into 3D understanding (image), (Mono and bi cue linear perspective useful realism) - Ames room: vulnerabilities in depth perception - depth perception The ability to use the two-dimensional image projected on the retina to perceive three dimensions. - monocular cue A depth cue that re quires the use of only one eye. (Texture and shading, - Occlusion(block imaged distant obj with closer (relative)) - Makes illusion (moonoverhead no size cue, horizon size cues (natural adjustment) - Motion alters depth (closer faster than distance) - binocular cue A depth cue that requires the use of both eyes - Retinal Disparity: The difference be tween the images projected onto each eye \>relative distance btw two objects - Observe variations even in camouflage - Imitated in 3D movies - Eyes face forward visual scene overlap - Difference: - Infants see same with less detail (thus like high contrast objects), child binocular disparity (at 4month), occlusion(at 2 months), relative size (5-7 months), 2 day old facial recognition - Aging: accommodation lens slower mid adulthood, and slower brightness response, iris less elastic pupil smaller less light, yellow increase UC protect but color perception changes - Deviate: corrective surgery (eyeball length alter sight (longdistance, short near, astigmatism uneven cornea) Hear (3%): important for communication, Audition: sense of hearing - Auditory stimulus - Move object collision with wave (not possible in vacuum), amp(loudness dB)/frequency(pitch Hz) - Ultra (20000HZ, clean/medical(, Infrasound(marine animals communicate) - Biology Audition: EAR (outer, middle, inner) - Outer: visible - Pinna: funnel collect sound (above below head) auditory canal tympanic membrane eardrum - Middle Ear: - Bone btw oval window transfer sound E form air to ear fluid in inner ear (harder to hear in water) - Inner Ear: linked to middle by oval window - Two sets of fluid filled cavity - cochlea The structure in the inner ear that contains auditory receptors. pea sized transmit vibrational stimuli - 3 parallel chamber: vestibular canal and tympanic canal (connected at apex) - Vibrations by mid ear bones into fluid - basilar membrane: membrane in the cochlea on which the organ of Corti is located.(sep cochlear duct from tympanic canal) - wave movement moves corti bend and stimulate neurotransmitter in auditory nerve (hair cells stim axon in auditory nerve) - organ of Corti A structure located on the basilar membrane that contains auditory receptors.\--\> sound energy to neural signal - auditory nerve Nerve carrying sound information from the cochlea to the brain - Outer middle (tympanic membrane) inner (corti and basilar membrane (hair) medulla midbrain (localization) thalamus sound to temporal lobe (primary auditory cortex secondary auditory - Perception and Cognition - Pitch: - Basilar membrane: peak response (basenarrow and stiff), (apexwide and flexible) - High frequency base max move, low frequency apex max move (hair cells near there max frequency response) - High frequency: place theory for localization but low frequency temporal theory (no localization) - Loudness: intensity, frequency alters loudness (outside range of speech need higher intensity (boost frequency) - Localization: pinna (vertical plane (above and below head) - Horizontal plane: arrival time of sound (front/behind same, or perpendicular) - Arrival time, difference of intensity due to sound shadow by head (weaker by ear further from sound) - Combo vision and audition - Grouping - Gesalth psych: sounds from location or same start and stop same source, diff location or start and stop not grouped - Top down processing (sim music and language better learning) - Difference in Audition - Fetus listen in 24 weeks (recognize voice) - Two days understand language - 6 months turn gead to sound - 1 year: reply name - Age related hearing lost higher frequency first up to 6000HZ - Absolute Pitch: name a tone (different brain (larger left hemisphere genetic) more autistic) - Sociocultural Influence - Framework to interpret stimuli - Alter speech as sin wave: no other stimuli but if told speech will think language (perception can shape culture deafness) Feel: somatosensation The body senses, including body position, touch, skin temperature, and pain (stop survival). Sense magnetic field on body within body need faster react - Position: - Inner ear: sound and vestibular system (body position and movement) close middle ear if sick cause vertigo. - Vestibular syst (hair cells for movement): head to ground, linear/rotational acceleration - Hair cells signal in auditory nerve (medulla and cerebellum (balance and motor) (coordinate vestibular with auditor to make response) - Posture: Vestibular +SC - Medulla thalamus parietal lobe frontal lobe (voluntary movement) - Important linked to visual (head rotation) - Touch: size, shape, texture, combo with visual better (expand) - Social communication, comfort, love etc (Skin many AP receptors to respond to stimulus (pressure, vibration, stretch), receptors in BV and joints, Temperature receptors - Skin SC thalamus parietal lobe plus input from cranial nerves (in touch receptors - Homunculus (map of Somatosensory cortex) brain no touch or pain receptors (useful brain surgery) - Plastic: change sensory cortex response based on increase or decrease from body input - Phantom Limb: due to reorganize of somatosensory cortex - Increase input changes somatosensory cortex (expand use to training) - Autism: sensitive to touch - Pain: stop injury and help heal(nerve and glial triggered by stimuli), T, chemical, or mechanical pain response - Capsaicin in pepper spice pain response - Myleinated axons: deep pain, nonmyelinated dull pain pain to thalamus direct route one SC synapse ACC, insula, amygdala (emotion) and parietal lobe (location and intensity) - gate theory The theory that suggests that input from touch fibers competes with input from pain receptors, possibly preventing pain messages from reaching the brain.(pain and touch fibers input compete DILUTES pain) - touch fiber dilute: forebrain connect periaqueductal gray (endorphins) target by morphine decrease pain, - expectation response thus placebo works this way affect culture, context, and experience Smell: Olfaction: The sense of smell.\--\> most dispensable (memories)scent in air (heavy scent often on ground) - DON'T use Thalamus to get to CC but directly to olfactory cortex in frontal lobe extend into temporal lobe to amygdala (olfactory cortex links to thalamus information to orbitofrontal cortex) - air with stimuli interacts with olfactory receptors (4-6 week cell cycle) - cells make mucus at base (one molecule in mucus one interacts NS - olfactory nerve A nerve carrying olfactory information from the olfactory receptors to the - olfactory bulbs. olfactory bulb One of two structures below the frontal lobes of the brain that receive input from the olfactory receptors in the nose Taste: Gustation The sense of taste.\--\> dissolve scent on saliva, foods to survival (avoid poisons but, more calories surgary and fatty) - Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, Umami, capsaicin (spice ), on tongue and mouth equally distributed taste buds on papillae (150 receptors on each) - Taste buds replaced frequently - Medulla thalamusinsula somatosensory (parietal lobe orbital frontal cortex (pleasantness) - papillae Small bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds. - taste bud A structure found in papillae that contains taste receptor cells - Perception: ID complex stimuli, detect difference, experience shapes response - TOP down processing (perception of flavor with smell because they converge processing in brain) - Difference - Children put bad things in mouth (oblivious salty but not sweet and sour) - Age decrease taste bud and taste also reduce smell sensitivity (decrease appetite with age) - Female more smell sensitive - Super taster more papillae - PTSD olfaction relive with scent - Sociocultural - Scent control fire linked to religion - Scent for medical to perfume industry (Americans more irritated by odors) - Smells mean different places - Infants more foods in pregnancy will want more - Chapter 6: Aware Mind Consciousness: to know of on going experiences, state of awareness - consciousness A state of awareness. - self-awareness The special under standing of the self as distinct from other stimuli. - Stream of Consciousness: William James, Freud: voluntary mind - The Evolution of Consciousness: evolved at some point (more complex as we are higher in animal kingdom) variation in consciousness in animals - Consciousness as Variations in Alertness: Repair body and conserve E - Max safety more awareness - Consciousness as an Awareness of Ongoing Sensations - Choose response not on instinct (more options increase survival - Consciousness as Self-Awareness - Alive want to keep self alive (rouge testtouch the red spot at 18 months) - Self-awareness: complex social behaviour - Searching - In brain OUT: Mind(middle), Consciousness (Inner) - Lesions in thalamus: brain death consciousness (not just thalamus needed other components to respond (reticular formation also important for awareness response when awake - Consciousness: activity changes in brain networks - 5% more when focus thus default mode network(DMN) background brain activity - Decrease DMN activity when conscious with attention (Self, past present future) - Functional in adulthood linked to cognitive - Abnormal autism and Alzheimer Waking and Sleeping: sleep and waking cycle (daily rhythm) - sleep A normal state of consciousness characterized by reduced awareness of external stimuli. - waking A normal state of consciousness characterized by alertness and awareness of external stimuli. circadian rhythm A daily biological rhythm. - biological clock An internal mechanism that provides an approximate schedule for various physical processes (wake, hunger, body temperature) interact with zeitgebers (light reset clocks 24 hrs, if light not correct longer CR) - Modern Living and Circadian Rhythms: - Modern sleep and wake different especially artificial light - Artificial Lights breaks down melatonin (increase risk cancer, diabetes, heart disease) - Social jetlag: modern weekday.end sleep: (obesity or overweight), - Jetlag: sleep and irritability (worst memory bad reaction time) - Easier to adjust from sleep in then get up early (day light saving) - Occupation round the clock (graveyard shift: shift maladaptation syndrome: mood personality, health, interpersonal problems more accidents and errors) - Major depressive disorder with seasonal pattern A mood disorder in which depression occurs regularly at the same time each year, usually during the winter months; formerly known as seasonal affective disorder (SAD).\--\> winters less light bad CR (exposure therapy) - Individual Variations in Circadian Rhythms - Larks vs Owls (different interna; clock genes as well as age (puberty diff brain develop) ideal is middle day - Waking:EEG brain activity: 3 wave patterns - beta wave A waveform of 15 to 30 cycles per second recorded by electro encephalogram that usually indicates alert waking.\--\> think and alter - alpha wave A waveform of 9 to 12 cycles per second recorded by electro encephalogram that usually indicates relaxed waking. RELAXED - gamma wave A waveform of more than 30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that indicates attention to sensory input.\--\> Visual Stimuli imput - daydreaming DMN activity with alpha waves - Sleep - rapid eye movement (REM) sleep The component of sleep char acterized by waveforms resembling waking, as measured by electroen cephalogram, accompanied by rapid motion of the eyes, muscular paraly sis, and sympathetic nervous system activation - Stages of Sleep: EEG, muscle move help see if one REM or other - REM: 4 stages: - First sleep: Theta Waves: unaware they sleeping - theta wave A waveform of 4 to 7 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that is characteristic of lighter stages of non--rapid eye movement sleep. - Two: they are sleep: reduce HR: K complex and sleep spindles (consolidate memories) - Alzheimer decrease Sleep spindles - 3-4 N-REM:15 mimutes (stage 4 more delta than 3) - non--rapid eye movement (N-REM) sleep The components of sleep characterized by theta and delta wave activity, as re corded by electroencephalogram, and deep physical relaxation. - delta wave A waveform of 1 to 4 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates deep non--rapid eye movement sleep. - Stage 4 most disoriented - REM 90-120 mins, Paradoxical sleep (looks deep sleep but awaking brain activity btw beta and theta rhythm SNS active and rapid eye movement) - REM sleep paralysis (lose muscle control) - Sleep walking in stage 3/4, talking in NREM some possible in REM - Cycle 8 hour btw (first half long NREM (mostly 3 and 4), second half switch to REM (3-4 infrequent or absent=dreams) - The Benefits of Sleep : 1/3 of lives sleeping important, sleep depravation decrease reaction, slows healing, obesity, fewer neuron production, GH (stage 3-4 released here) - Aerobic activity increased REM - Age decrease REM thus causes muscles and joint pain (30min/10 after 50 yr) - Important for memory: consolidate memories (reactivate long term), efficient memory help forgot (important part of sleep) - The Special Benefits of REM - Newer evolution: no REM Similar response to sleep deprivation - REM rebound: more sleep in REM important for necessary functions (maturity at birth) - Antidepression; rg mood supress REM - REM and mood linked : serotonin and NE quiet with REM active in NREM - Dreams: - EEG technology and reams (MRI) - Continuous of thoughts during awakes to dream like during sleep - Activation Synthesis Theory: content dreams ongoing neural activity (flying vestibular activation, REM arousal) DMN overlap with dreaming (less outside stimuli and reduced frontal lobe activity) - dreaming A mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery. - LUCID DREAMING: awake frontal areas during dreams (Dorsal prefrontal cortex). A conscious awareness of dreaming accompanied by the ability to control the content of the dream - Sleep Disorders - Nightmares (REM sleep) and Sleep Terrors: A sleep disorder occurring in non--rapid eye movement sleep (first three hours) in which the sleeper wakes suddenly in great dis tress but without experiencing the imagery of a nightmare.\--\> lucid dream can escape nightmare (from NREM to REM) - Insomnia: A sleep disorder characterized by an inability to either initiate or maintain normal sleep. - Onset: unable to sleep (due to stress) - Maintenance: early walk, sleep often disturbed (psych, stress, substance) - Ambien Treatment (faster sleep, longer time) - Mobile blue light conflicts with melatonin - Narcolepsy ( A sleep disorder characterized by the intrusion of rapid eye movement phenomena into waking.) REM sleep in wakefulness sleep paralysis (touch to stop) - Damaged orexins in thalamus genetic vulnerability and autoimmune attacks - Cataplexy: muscle paralysis in REM without lost consciousness - Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders - Sleep Apnea: A sleep disorder in which the person stops breathing while asleep. - Treat with wright lost surgery (snoring is sign) or when brainstem neuron malfunction - Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): A sleep disorder in which an otherwise healthy infant dies while asleep. - Suffocation on blankets and clothes (vulnerability, stressors, and developmental period) - Reduce: skin to skin, vaccine - Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS):A disorder characterized by the involuntary move ment of an extremity, usually one leg - ADHD linked to RLS diff dopamine function Brain Damage: important face recognition memory for conscious experience - Prosopagnosia: ability to recognize faces but ANS response to faces - Capgras: sense of emotion with faces lost, damage general brain circuits - Specific Areas of Brain Damage and Consciousness - Coma: A state of deep unconsciousness resulting from brain damage or illness. - No sleep wake cycles (no response to stimuli) - Disrupt reticular formation or both hemisphere function (2-4 VS or die) - Heart patient alpha coma in EEG - Vegetative State: An abnormal state following brain injury featuring wake fulness without consciousness - Followed by period of coma, normal sleep wake cycle, response to some stimuli (Conscious but cannot respond to stimuli) - Brain Death - Artificially maintain body function (irreplaceable lost of brainstem function) - Near-Death: An altered state of consciousness reported by people who were close to death because of cardiac or other medical problems that features out-of-body experiences, light-at-the-end of-a-tunnel perceptions, and a state of calmness - Light at the end of tunnel, dying revival similar from REM to waking - Seizures: An abnormal level of brain activation with a sudden onset. Change consciousness - Epilepsy (brain injury or infection) - Disturb GABA (inhibit cause them excite treatment) - Partial: focal area (know seizure activation (DEJAVU) temporal lobe - Generalize: abnormal activation of circuit cortex and thalamus (lose conscious) - Tonic clinic (lose breathing and muscle contraction) - Absence: lose consciousness (blink and eye move only) Alter Consciousness - General Features of Psychoactive Drugs (Any drug with the capability of altering a person's state of consciousness.): poisonous (bitter) - tolerance The need to administer greater quantities of a drug to achieve the same subjective effect. - Large quantity to get effects: repeated compensate effects (learned) - withdrawal Physical responses to the removal of some habitually administered drugs. - Opposite effects of drug (rebound) - addiction A compulsive physical or psychological dependence on a substance or activity that continues in spite of negative consequences - Dependence in spite of negativity, want prioritize short term outcome - Distorts: dopamine pathway and basal gangli - Reflective in frontal lobe and insula craving (stroke limits activity) - excess activity in the impulsive system, inadequate activity in the reflective system, and increased desire appear to set the stage for maintaining compulsive addictive behaviors Commonly Used Psychoactive Drugs hallucinogen A drug that stimulates the experience of false perceptions. stimulant Any drug that increases the activity of the nervous system. - Marijuana: hallucinogenic: smoked cannabis, subtle effects (euphoria or social withdrawal (50 cannabis -THC), receptor: in pain / move another in immune sys, anandamide: relaxation (before effects than THC but, dopamine (creates addictive) - LSD: sim serotonin acts with receptors, increase visual cortex and alpha cortex (halogenic), flashback - Caffeine: stimulant, less inhibition from adenosine (increase alter), alter HR (enter breast milk and placenta) decrease Alzheimer and Parkinson's - Nicotine: smoke/tobacco, sim to ACH increase cognitive, muscle relax, decrease fatigue, increase risk schiz - Cocaine and Amphetamines: sim behavior, increase alter and well being higher dose schiz (repeated motor behavior), Meth psychosis (mimic dopamine get into neuron, dopamine outside reverse continuous receptor stimulation) Cocaine block transporters continuous stimulation - Methylphenidate (Ritalin): treats ADHD boost dopamine and NE increase focus and alertness (alter sleep and appetite) - MDMA (Ecstasy): relative of Meth, increase serotonin and oxytocin (alter serotonin release to maximize and continuous receptor responseSerotonin syndrome: overdose: dehydrate exhaustion and death. Bad for neurons. - Teats PTSD, autism, alcoholism - Alcohol: safety fermented water, decrease anxiety, and educe inhibition and motor (boost GABA, boost inhibit more brain activity and block glutamate excitatory, stimulus dopamine pathway - Opioids: poppy: morphine, codeine, heroine (mimic endorphins activity increase dopamine decrease pain), rapid euphoria if excess dose - Non-drug: - hypnosis An altered state of conscious ness characterized by relaxation and in creased suggestibility: enhanced suggestion response - worsens memory, somewhat useful for habit change - meditation A voluntary alteration of consciousness characterized by positive emotion and absence of thought. - Mindfulness mediation for psych disorders and drug treatment - Good immune sys, BP, cognitive function - EEG shows increase alpha wave and MRI increase ANS les DMN - Physical brain change, thicker CC, gray matter more ACC Other: more altitudes, sleep deprivation, starvation, sensory deprive: hallucination due to recue prefrontal cortex activity (lots of religious procedures), Spinning religious mediation (RAVE similar linked with drumming and dancing (less responsive to external stimuli more theta wave activity) Chapter 8: Adaptive Mind Animal and Environment: internal process(behavior, thoughts or external - reflex An inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli. NS circuit (knee jerk), what you are born with - fast reliable welfare response but inflexible (eg goosebumps) - instinct An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli; also known as a fixed action pattern. fixed action patterns (run til completion), reliable but more complex more neurons (mating or parenting) - learning A relatively permanent change in behavior or the capacity for behavior due to experience. - practiced fast response (infancy to adulthood) Learning: 3 types of learning (not mutually exclusive) - associative learning The formation of associations, or connections, among stimuli and behaviors. if this happens this will follow (predict future) - classical conditioning A type of learn ing in which associations are formed be tween two stimuli that occur sequentially in time. - operant conditioning A type of learning in which associations are formed be tween behaviors and their outcomes. CONSEQUENCES - no associative learning Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to stimuli. - habituation A simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease. (reduce reactions to repeated behaviors)(violence with kids media) MILDER - sensitization An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus. (overreact to previous stimuli stronger) STRONGER dangerous - observational learning Learning that occurs when one organism watches the actions of another organism; also known as social learning or modeling.\--\> transmit generational info Classical Conditioning: Pavlov Dog (study of learning, anticipate arrival of food not lab assistant got reaction stimuli to food)involuntary response: associate two stimuli Classical Conditioning terminology: conditioned (learned) unconditioned (not learned) - conditioned stimulus (CS) An environ mental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning. relevance LEARNED - unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that elicits a response without prior experience. INNATE (response through biology) - conditioned response (CR) A response learned through classical conditioning. - unconditioned response (UCR) A response to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experience. (salvation USR but with a cause CR - CSS links UCS Classical Conditioning Phenomena - Acquisition: The development of a learned response. - Contiguity (proximity btw CS and UCS) need to relate stimuli - Contingency: correlation btw CS and UCS - Extinction and spontaneous recovery: - extinction The reduction of a learned re sponse. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) no longer follows the conditioned stimulus (CS). In operant conditioning, ex tinction occurs when the consequence no longer follows the learned behavior. (CR lost if link btw CS and UCS broken) CR decreases (relearn but not lose) - spontaneous recovery During extinc tion training, the reappearance of condi tioned responses (CRs) after periods of rest - Inhibition : - CS predicts UCS - Excitatory pairing to shock (inhbuitory CS lack for drug effect with particular signal decrease relapse) - inhibition A feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the non-occurrence of an un conditioned stimulus (UCS). - Generalization and Discrimination - generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus (CS). respond to similar CS stimuli (survival value but could be negative (PTSD)) - discrimination A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli. (fine distinction btw stimuli - higher-order Conditioning :Learning in which stimuli associated with a condi tioned stimulus (CS) also elicit conditioned responses (CRs). - CR occurs to predict CS, better future predictions (due to pain USC response) - Latent Inhibition: The slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is already familiar compared to when the CS is unfamiliar - Familiar with CS longer learned response to it (poor learning to stimuli) - Cognitive and biological Influences on Classical Conditioning: study external behaviours what about internal humans(rats to humans applicable (too simple) - The element of surprise - Contiguity and contingency - Mix to CS for on UCS (if one signal associated with same outcome strong learning, how surprising CS UCS association more learning than after CS has already established - Taste Aversion - Sight, taste, smell of food (CS) caused illness UCS =CR - CS and UCS can make classical conditioning - Type of CS and USC combos matter (not any possible, stimuli not interchangeable and species are more likely to link food with illness than visual stimuli and illness) animal use best ques to make association - Applying Classical Conditioning: precondition - Overcoming Fear: fear result classical conditioning to reduce learned fears CR extinguish when CS only present (extinction) no USC, - exposure therapy: repeated exposure til fear removed - aversion therapy An application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) formerly paired with a pleasurable unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is instead paired with an unpleasant UCS. counterconditioning (sub negative outcome with positive) - systematic desensitization A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear (phobic stimulus from fear to relax) - Addiction CS for effects of drugs, environmental ques (CS) elicit cravings (USC), no way to weaker association with use (extinction with CS removal to prevent relapse) - Attitudes and Prejudice: influence consumers (association with products), prejudice: negative attitude with classical conditioning (with latent inhibition little exposure to others (create xenophobic association) - Creativity and schizophrenia: latent inhibition focus on change (less in creative ppl and schiz (ood connections): faster association with familiar stimuli Operant Conditioning: Thorndike Law of Effect: reduce annoying outcomes (consequence stamp the behaviour into repertoire) - the association between a behavior and its consequences is called operant or instrumental conditioning. - Skinner box expanded on Thorndikes, occurs behavior linked to consequence (voluntary) - Consequences: Look at resultsimpact of consequence - Positive Reinforcement: add stimulus to increase frequency of desired outcome - Autism Language candy + (what is effective reinforcer for a person PREMACK PRINCIPLE: spends most E on) - Useful tool for behaviour (more useful than punishment) - Extinction is not reinforced will drop in frequency - conditioned reinforcer A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued; also known as a secondary reinforcer.\--\> linked to other value reinforcers - Classical conditioning establishes the value of "good dog," and operant conditioning describes the use of "good dog" to reinforce the dog's voluntary behavior. - Negative Reinforcement: A method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence remove stimulus from situation to increase the behavior (avoid unpleasant consequence avoidance behavior) (NOT PUNISHMENT), avoid the negative behavior - COMBO negative and positive reinforcement - Punishment: decrease frequency, consequence - punishment A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior. - positive punishment A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus.\--\>adding something unwanted - negative punishment A method for reducing behavior by removing something desirable whenever the target behavior occurs remove something they want - WEAKER REINFORCEMENT (they must matter) - 3 conditions to see results: immediacy (delayed less impact), significance (larger consequence), consistency (everyone gets caught) - Extinction good alt to punishment (stop learned behavior when no reinforced consequence best to ignore negative behavior) Immediate reward and punishment more effective than delayed - Reinforcement: S/C: Continuous (every time it occurs reinforce if no longer reinforce results) - Ratio: \# time behavior occurs - Interval: depends passage of time - partial reinforcement The reinforce ment of a desired behavior on some occa sions, but not others - Fixed ratio schedules: A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors. - Set \# for each reinforcer, FR s/c cumulative response (Steady response) paid for each response - Variable ratio schedules: A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviors. - \# of time behaviors occur but fluctuate over a given time (steady response not when reinforcement will occur) slot machine human skinner box - Fixed Interval schedules: A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a specified interval is reinforced. - Depend on time passed before reinforcement obtained (same interval btw response) - Variable Interval schedules: A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a varying period is reinforced. - Interval fluctuate overtime more response rate - Partial reinforcement effect in extinction: The more rapid extinction observed following continuous reinforcement compared to that following partial reinforcement. - Variable s/c creates begging behavior (continuous reinforcement vs variable but extinction more likely on continuous reinforcement than partial s/c) - Transition: from continuous to extinction more obvious than partial (persist in non reinforcement time) - Comparing schedules: two or more choices which is better results (one will effect the other, what's the better reward) - the Method of successive Approximations (shaping): A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur; also known as shaping. - Increase frequency of not occurring behavior, reinforcement the behavior that are similar (funnel) Behavior similar then make it more strict, slowly narrow criteria as each step closer to true learned behavior with continuous reinforcement (balance btw too much and little reinforcement and feedback) - Useful chaining: variable que and adds each step backwards - Cognitive Influences on operant Conditioning: consequence required for learning (Tolman challenged learn without reinforce latent) - latent learning Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement - can learn but not linked to how performed (simple operant but linked to food map making not associative learning) - biological Influences on operant Conditioning: Keller and Breland: linked strong instinctive behaviour over learned behavior )instinctive drift - social Influences on operant Conditioning: Classical and operant better in social setting than individual. Necessary to learn with others, better. Social interaction generate the focus and motivation needed for learning - Social facilitation: make us do task faster - - Applying: psych therapy, education, politics - Pigeons: peak at target to detect bomb path - token economies: An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors - Secondary reinforcing tradeable for things you want - Useful education or institution - Offer the most valuable reward - behavior Therapies: Apply behavior analysis: change behavior - Extinction, reward, and punishment (substance abuse to depression) Observational Learning: learn by watching others (in social setting) generalize make effective rules (sometimes negative aggression), more likely mimic behaviors (achieve, language, cognitive, morality) - Albert bandura and Aggression: - imitation Copying behavior that is un likely to occur naturally and spontaneously. - Violent media and children, interaction with bob doll (BANDURA), saw aggression mimicked aggression (one punished group less aggression) vicarious reinforcement or punishment - attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation - Cultural transmission of Learning: generation pass of learning, useful overtime - Culture into MEME (Dawkins): ideas, symbols, melodies: selection pressure last, fads die out Chapter 9: Knowing Mind Memory: ability to retain knowledge - Memory and the Continuum of Information Processing : attention, perception and learning thinkinh, problem solving, language (top-down and bottom-up\_ - information processing A continuum including attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, and cognition. - encoding The transformation of information from one form to another. info to memory (transduced into memory (visual, auditory etc)) - Retrieve stored information (can be error and distort: interference and stress alter retrieval) - storage The retention of information. - Memory Provides an Adaptive Advantage - Use past info to respond quickly (animal save reaction time) - E in memory system (more taxing) Processing: info processing model (memories store for different lengths of time) - retrieval The recovery of stored information. - sensory memory The first stage of the Atkinson--Shiffrin model that holds large amounts of incoming data for brief amounts of time. - Sensory data, lasted for few seconds fading echo (once neural activity produced) several codes mental model (visual code for view, tactical code, acoustic code) - process different codes different length (acoustic code longer) - Sperling checks ionic memory - Short Term: The sec ond stage of the Atkinson--Shiffrin model that holds a small amount of information for a limited time - Sensory to short term for processing (eg phone number) 30 second passive retention - Rehearsal: repetition of info as long as not divert attention (easily displaced data in the STM) - Low capacity (5-9 items), need to be empty easier recall (use info and discard) - short-term memory, four components were proposed a phonological loop, a visuospatial sketch pad, a central executive, and an episodic buffer. - Phonological loop: working memory : verbal and auditory info - (VSS)Visuospatial sketch pad: visual, spacial - Central Executive: the work of other comp (divided task) - Episodic Buffer: combine long term memory info with working memory - chunking The process of grouping similar or meaningful information together. - Cant use if have verbal disability - working memory An extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously. - Active manipulation info multiprocess at once - Long Term: few limit or capacity, old memories harder to retrieve: The final stage of the Atkinson--Shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memories. - Short to Long term: rehearsal from new to old - Maintenance rehearsal: repetition of the material - Elaborative rehearsal: link material to stuff already know (better to transfer), continuum form shallow to deep decrease processing needed to encode into long term - levels of processing theory The depth (shallow to deep) of processing applied to information that predicts its ease of retrieval. - Working vs Long Term - Serial position effect: primacy effect(store in long term more rehearsal for early than later words) - Recency effect: superior recall for last, present in working memory (if delayed by 30 s lost) - Woking and long term separated (Molason could use working but not long term (can do one not other) Long term Memory - Declarative (D):A consciously retrieved memory that is easy to verbalize, including semantic, episodic, and auto biographical information; also known as explicit memory.\--\>CONSCIOUS, explicit - four dimensions: the type of information processed, the organization of the information in memory, the source of the information, and the focus of the memory (sematic and episodic can overlap each other-dynamic) - Semantic Memory: A general knowledge memory. - Words, meanings, facts, categorized, others - Episoidic Memory: A memory for personal experience. - Personal, events, obj , people, timeline, self experience - autobiographical memory Semantic or episodic memories that reference the self.(MIX of both) - HSAM: perfect recalls of memories - NonD (ND): An unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memory that is difficult to verbalize, such as a memory for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming; also known as implicit memory UNCONSCIOUS, hard to discuss, gen by classical conditioning, IMPLCITinfluence behavior without conscious (classical conditioning) - Procedural: A nondeclarative or implicit memory for how to carry out skilled movement. SKILL - Demonstration, automation performance, divide our capacity (badly learn need to relearn) - Priming: A change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus. (Stimulus change response) exposure - Unconscious change attitude - Organized: Coding system, link similar if sim characteristics - Connectionist: thinks one concept think of other related concepts (based on own experience) - spreading activation model A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences.\--\> OWN experience - Account results od lexical decision model (closely related faster decision) - Interference: Schema (A set of expectations about objects and situations) - Memory not recoding, added details of stories based on our own set of expectations. - Schemas similar to our schema retained or added rather than those not linked - Context important for schema Retrieval Memory: store and then retrieve importants - Short Term: cannot retrieve all simultaneously (increase letters then search each item) - Long Term: - Cues: stimulus target information, complete cues, cue A stimulus that aids retrieval. - Generate-recognize: get answers and make sure correct - Effective cue generated themselves - Encoding Specificity: Target info coded with bits present: A process in which memories incorporate unique combi nations of information when encoded. - Any stimulus could be cue (better retrieval mimic exam environment), mood etc - Tip of Tongue: not all or none, step by step. TOT, partial recall, instance recognize target but, incorrect word was cue - Reconstructions (reconstruction Rebuilding a memory out of stored elements.) follows from LTM to WM (blind bits LTM into WM). LTM retrieved they change and each time recall gen new version of memory (more remote less update) - Memory not a video but, often are open to revision - Fuzzy Trace theory: retain general idea of events (better use of energy and recall just creates false memories, need source monitor (checkpoint for memories) - Emotional: - Associated main events with strong emotional experience (strong memoires) effective future response, direct amygdala stimulus creates stronger emotional response. - Harder to remember negative events - flashbulb memory An especially vivid and detailed (PTSD) - s through the stages described by the information processing model, it remains relatively fragile and subject to modification - Stress and learning create flashbulb memory (reduce size if hippocampus harder make new memories) Forget: decrease ability to remember previously formed memory (must be memory first). Amnesia if medical lose of memory (recall limited by stress and distraction) - MRI shows we suppress memories that are lower priority - Decay: A reduction in ability to retrieve rarely used information over time.\--\> FADE - Retention method of savings (less hard to learn it the second time compared to first - Interference: Competition between newer and older information in memory. Time to make memory (compete between other bits of info) minutes to hours window (consolidation) - Works in two directions (Proactive interference refers to reduced memory for target information as a result of earlier learning) or (Reduced memory for target information because of subsequent learning is known as retroactive interference.) - Motivated forgetting Failure to retrieve negative memories.\--\> forgot to prevent more negative feelings - Original info lost in process - Motivated forgetting for repression (memory recovered later due to trigger some could be made up (false memories can arise) schema) LOFTUS easy to implant false memories (especially photos) Biology of Memory - Memory at the Level of the synapse: Changes connection neurons makes with each other - Changes synaptic strength and neural gene expression for memory (consistent in habituation and sensitization) - long-term potentiation (LTP) The enhancement of communication between two neurons resulting from their synchro nous activation.\--\> simultaneous activation and receiving change to more efficient synapse (useful use LTP as structure similar LTM) - Working Memory and the brain: - Serval executive functions managed by frontal lobe but not in one specific part of brain - Phonological and VSS use same posterior part of brain as verbal and visual - Top down due to prefrontal and parietal cortex (attentions to keep stimulus info in WM) - Long-term Memories and the brain: corelate with brain function and LTM - Declarative Memories and the hippocampus: - Consolidation of semantic and location info, re-experience episodic - Anterograde Amnesia: no make new memories (Declarative memory gone but procedural present) - Declarative Memories and the Cerebral Cortex - Semantic memories spread CC, brain image which part active different memory (occipital lobe is visual animal, tool parietal lobe associate with hand move). - Though semantic and episodic overlap different parts of brain needed (Alzheimer lose more episodic) - DMN structure use for episodic processing, insula and temporal lobe important to remember emotional personal memories - Source Amnesia: Semantic knowledge but no how go it - Procedural Memories and the basal Ganglia : correlated activation of forebrain and basal ganglia - Huntington and Parkinson: degenerate basal ganglia - biochemistry and Memory: flexible multistage process - ACH: effects new info encoding(drug inhibit hard to make new memories), Alzheimer (degenerate ACH neural circuits) - Increase Ach interfere memory consolidation and retrieval, low level in sleep (transfer temp to permanent info storage) - Glutamate (NMDA) Enhance glutamate better memory formation - Caffeine: blocks adenosine better memory formation - GABA difference WM, frontal lobe dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (WM-intelligence) - Impairing WM Schiz to dementia Improve Memory: organized material better to retrieve, elaborative rehearsal, state and mood crucial - Distribute Over Time: cramming bad for memory, better distribute than mass practice better memory, more consolidation than interference - Take Tests: test better long term