Science, Technology & Society - PDF

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY General Concepts and Historical Development Ancient Mesopotamia - Known as Iraq today - Mesopotamia is located between two rivers - the Euphrates and Tigris. INNOVATIONS 1. Sexagesimal System - used sexagesimal numerical systems with...

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY General Concepts and Historical Development Ancient Mesopotamia - Known as Iraq today - Mesopotamia is located between two rivers - the Euphrates and Tigris. INNOVATIONS 1. Sexagesimal System - used sexagesimal numerical systems with mathematical operations, quadratic and cubic equations, and fractions. - The system uses 60 as the base, meaning that each digit represents a power of 60, rather than powers of 10 as in the decimal system. - They concluded that 1 cycle = 3600 years, 1 hour = 3600 seconds, 1 minute = 60 seconds 1॰ = 36000 arc seconds, etc. Applications Today - Time: We divide hours into 60 minutes and minutes into 60 seconds, directly influencing the sexagesimal system. - Angles: Degrees in a circle (360°) are split into 60 minutes per degree and 60 seconds per minute. - Astronomy: The system tracked planetary movements and measured time intervals. 2. Cuneiform - Cuneiform is the writing system developed for writing on clay tablets. It involved using a wedge-shaped stylus in wet clay, which was dried. The word “cuneiform” is a modern term derived from the Latin word “cuneus”, meaning wedge. - Cuneiform is crucial for understanding ancient Mesopotamian civilizations, such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Researchers study clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform to gain insights into the daily life, law, trade, science, literature, and religion of these cultures. Applications Today - 3D Modeling: Modern technology is used to create 3D models of cuneiform tablets, helping scholars analyze and preserve them digitally, even allowing people to "virtually handle" tablets without damaging the originals. 3. Ziggurat  - Temples were a central feature of cities such as Ur, Babylon, and Uruk. Ziggurats were built as religious centers dedicated to the chief deity of the city, and they played a significant role in Mesopotamian spiritual, political, and social life. - calculated movements of the sun, moon, and planets; foresee solar & lunar eclipses - record the rising of the sun to its setting using sundial -> division into 12 hours for daylight and 12 hours for darkness, forming 24 hours in a day - chart stars leading to the creation of the calendar. 4. Code of Hammurabi's - Concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions - It covered various aspects of life, including commerce, family, crime, and professional conduct. Medicine was one of the areas addressed in this legal code, particularly in terms of medical malpractice and compensation for physicians' services. Applications Today - Accountability in Medicine: The Hammurabi Code was an early precursor to modern malpractice laws. Today, physicians are also held accountable for their actions through medical licensing boards, malpractice suits, and ethical codes. - Regulation of Medical Fees: The code established a fee structure for medical services, something that continues today in the form of insurance billing, standardized medical fees, and healthcare compensation. 5. Wheel & Sail - The wheel was used largely for the potter's wheel, which later was used for carts, and chariots to facilitate transportation. The wheel greatly helped them carry heavy loads as early as 3500 BCE. - They became the basis for the creation of the sail where the effect of the wind on a sail was to navigate by bodies of water. - Sails were used in ancient Egypt as early as 3100 BCE for navigating the Nile River and the Mediterranean Sea. Egyptian sails were typically made from woven reeds or linen and were used to harness the wind for transportation. Applications Today - The fundamental concept of the wheel—rotating on an axle—has evolved into a cornerstone of modern transportation. From cars and bicycles to trains and airplanes, the wheel is integral to nearly all forms of mechanized transportation.  - Wheels are ubiquitous in daily life, found in items such as office chairs, luggage, and appliances. Their design and functionality have been refined from ancient times to enhance convenience and mobility. - The basic principles of sail design—harnessing wind power to propel a vessel—continue to be used in modern sailboats and yachts. Advanced materials and engineering techniques have improved sail efficiency and performance. - The concept of harnessing wind power has evolved into the design of wind turbines for generating renewable energy. The basic aerodynamic principles of sails are applied in designing turbine blades to maximize wind energy conversion. Ancient Egypt - Advancements in tools to construct houses, temples, tombs, and sculptures of their gods, include the colossal statues of the famous pharaoh Hatshepsut, and the rock-cut tomb in The Valley of the Kings for the pharaoh Tutankhamun. - The Nile River was critical to the development of ancient Egypt. INNOVATIONS 1. Pyramid - The Great Pyramid of Giza, built during the reign of Pharaoh Khufu (around 2580–2560 BCE), is one of the most iconic and enduring symbols of ancient Egypt. Standing at an original height of 146.6 meters (481 feet), it was the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years. - The construction of the pyramid showcases ancient Egypt's advanced engineering techniques, organizational skills, and resource management. Applications Today - Structural Stability: The precision of the construction techniques ensured that the pyramid would remain structurally stable for thousands of years. Its size, weight distribution, and the quality of the stonework have allowed the pyramid to survive earthquakes, erosion, and the wear of time. - The construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza showcases the extraordinary engineering abilities of the ancient Egyptians. Through innovative use of materials, precise alignment  and leveling techniques, sophisticated labor organization, and architectural foresight, the pyramid remains one of the greatest engineering feats in human history. 2. Sundial - A sundial is one of the oldest known timekeeping devices, using the position of the Sun to cast a shadow on a marked surface to indicate time. - The basic principle behind a sundial is that as the Earth rotates, the Sun appears to move across the sky, and a fixed object, called a gnomon (usually a stick or a triangular wedge), casts a shadow that moves in a predictable pattern. Applications Today - Backup for Mechanical Clocks - While sundials are less practical today due to the convenience of modern clocks, they can serve as a backup in remote areas or in situations where electronic or mechanical clocks fail. - Astronomical Applications - Sundials are still used by some astronomers to calibrate and confirm celestial observations, particularly in solar observations. They serve as a basic, non-mechanical way to track the apparent motion of the Sun. 3. Irrigation System - Egyptians use wind power by sailing ship. Egyptians used the power derive from the annual flooding in the Nile for irrigation which they learn to control through irrigation channels and catch basins (basin irrigation) - Ancient Egyptian device used to measure the water level of the Nile River, which was crucial for predicting the success of the annual inundation—a key aspect of Egyptian agriculture, is called Nilometer. Applications Today - Water Control Engineering: The principles of water measurement and control used in Nilometers inform modern water control engineering, including the design of dams, levees, and irrigation channels. - Architectural Influence: The design of ancient water management systems, including Nilometers, has influenced modern architectural and engineering solutions for integrating water features and managing natural resources in construction projects. - Water Resource Policy: Historical data on Nile flooding and agricultural impacts informs water resource management policies. Understanding past practices helps policymakers design effective strategies for  managing water resources and supporting agriculture in regions with similar climatic conditions. - Disaster Preparedness: Lessons learned from the ancient use of Nilometers contribute to modern strategies for disaster preparedness and response, particularly in regions prone to flooding. Greece and Rome - Physics and Medicine | Explains the natural phenomena against what is supernatural INNOVATIONS 1. Physics and Medicine - Thales of Miletus - Assumed Earth to be floating in the water - Anaximander of Miletus - Formulated a theory of the origin and evolution of life. - Anaximenes - Suggests that air is the primary substance - Hippocrates - Recognized as the Father of Medicine. Established medicine as a profession and reiterated that all diseases are caused by natural causes and not because of superstitious beliefs. Hippocratic Oath - encourages separation of medicine from religion 2. Philosophy and Scientific Method - Aristotle- made contributions to a wide range of fields, including biology, physics, and logic. His empirical approach laid the foundation for the scientific method. - Socrates - Contribute knowledge through dialogues using the Socratic Method (art of Questioning) - Plato - Coined the term element and established the Academy used abstract geometry models rather than empirical observations 3. Astronomy - An ancient astronomer, geographer and mathematician. - Ptolemaic system (Relating to a model of the solar system or universe having the Earth as the center.) - Model of planetary emotion showed that the exact positions of the sun, moon, stars and planets in the future in the past can be computed based on astronomical observation Applications Today - The scientific and technological achievements of Ancient Greece and Rome represent a critical period in the history of human knowledge. Their innovations in mathematics, astronomy, engineering, medicine, and philosophy laid the foundation for many aspects of modern science and technology. The impact of their work continues to be felt today, as their contributions form an essential part of the intellectual and technological heritage of Western civilization. Medieval Period - Known as Middle Ages Dark Ages - Slow progress of science in the history of Europe due to fall of Roman Empire - Suppressing the natural scientists’ discoveries - Rising of Catholic Church High Middle Ages - Rebirth of Science in Europe - Golden Islamic Ages (Arabic, access to Greek writings, proximity to India): - Abū-ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn-ʿAbdallāh Ibn-Sīnā [Avicenna] + The Canon of Medicine - encyclopedia of medical knowledge (primary medical text for centuries). Covers, anatomy, physiology, pharmacology and disease treatment + Clinical Trials - controlled experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments - Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi + Father of Algebra; algebra from one oh his publication al-jabr + The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing + algorithm" (derived from his name) and "algebra" (derived from the title of his book). + introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals + introduced astronomical tables INNOVATIONS 1. Typing Press 2. The Watermill 3. Gunpowder 4. Blast Furnace 5. Mechanical Clock 6. Hourglass 7. Arquebus 8. Thermometer 9. Paper Money