General Concepts and Historical Developments 1-2 PDF

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND STS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS 1  A. HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN THE WORLD The Advent of Science(600 BC to 1400 AD) q Man’s scientific view of the globe started in what was known then as ancient Mesopotam...

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND STS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS 1  A. HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN THE WORLD The Advent of Science(600 BC to 1400 AD) q Man’s scientific view of the globe started in what was known then as ancient Mesopotamia. qEarly scientific studies were brought about by man’s fascination with objects in the night. qHigh priests of Sumeria scrutinized the stars, and vast records of such endeavors were inscribed on tablets that were made of clay. 2  Science and Technology Practiced in Ancient Greece q The people of the ancient Greece did not consider science as a distinct subject from that of philosophy. q But, the work of Thales of Miletus, a philosopher showed signs of scientific perspectives. He foresaw the occurrence of 3 a rare solar eclipse. 4  Archimedes, an engineer was able to detect the characteristics of liquids, such as fluids 5  Eratosthenes tinkered with the Earth’s breadth and width 6  Ctesibius constructed precise clocks 7  The Onset of Science and Technology in Asia q China § The Chinese were able to invent gunpowder, fireworks, rockets, metals and even guns. § They were also believed to have first invented the first seismometer and the first compass. § Chinese astronomers were able to observe the passage of a supernova. 8  Gunpowder 9  Compass 10  Seismometer 11  q India § Indians were the first to use spinning wheel. § Indian farming techniques were considered superior even to the Chinese. § Brilliant Indian mathematicians were also responsible for the development of Arabic Number System. 12  Spinning wheel 13 14  Ushering the Golden Age of Islam q The House of Wisdom library in Baghdad had provided inspiration and well-being to several lovers of astronomy. q The Science of Astronomy was of great use to Arabic nomads, who used such knowledge of the heavenly bodies to navigate. 15  Alhazen, a great Arab scientist, who wrote a book about optics 16  Al-Razi, a physician who formulated soap and made distinctions between smallpox and measles 17  Al-Khwarizmi, who introduced algebra and algorithms 18  AAl-Jazari, an engineer, who was the first to use rod systems still found in cars today 19  qSome other Arab chemists discovered distillation and formulated works, such as alkali and alcohol 20  The Great Scientific Revolution of 1400 to 1700 AD q The Dangers of the Times § Nicolaus Copernicus, a doctor from Poland, who proposed that it was the Sun which was the center of the solar system § Johannes Kepler, a German astrologer, who observed the elliptical orbits of Mars 21  Nicolaus Copernicus 22  Johannes Kepler 23  § Galileo Galilei, an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, with the use of more powerful telescopes, identified around four moons of the planet Jupiter § Christian Huygens, a Dutch physicist, mathematician, and astronomer, built the first pendulum clock in 1657 § Francis Bacon, an English philosopher, made a pitch for the use of scientific method 24  Galileo Galilei 25  Christian Huygens 26  Francis Bacon 27  § Robert Boyle, an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist and physicist who is famously remembered for his Air Pump experiment concerning the relationship between the pressure and volume of gas within a closed system § Isaac Newton, an English physicist who proposed the theories of light travel 28  Robert Boyle 29  Isaac Newton 30  § O l e Rome r , a Da ni sh a st ronom e r, w h o calculated the approximate speed of light § Nicolas Steno, a Danish scientist, a pioneer in both anatomy and geology wherein he studied the rock layers which established a new scientific ground for the emerging science of geology 31  Ole Romer 32  Nicolas Steno 33  qThe Age of Micro-beings § Robert Hooke, using his own microscope, revealed for the very first time to the scientific community, his findings on the complex structure of small insects, such as fleas and bugs 34  Robert Hooke 35  § Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, he started making his own microscopes and was able to found small life forms in places such as water. He also discovered life forms with single cells, like bacteria. § Jan Swammerdam, he studied the different stages in the development of an insect 36  Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 37  Jan Swammerdam 38  § John Ray, an Englishman biologist who made a great collection of plant species and was considered the first important attempt to systematize the classification of living things. 39  John Ray 40  q The Dawn of Mathematical Analysis § The best achievement of the century belonged to Isaac Newton, whose magni fi cent t reat i se P h i l o s o p h i a e Naturalis Principia Mathematical, laid to rest doubts over laws of motion and gravity. 41  § Newtonian Physics was so influential and encompassing that for more than 200 years, it anchored knowledge of the physical world and combining these with the analytical tools embedded in the use of Calculus, such Physics would provide a powerful framework for future study of the scientific field. 42  The Expansion of Scientific Horizons (1700 to 1800) q More Discoveries § Stephen Hales, an Englishman, discover root pressure (rising of sap within plants) and, invented a trough for collecting gases 43  § Daniel Bernoulli, a S w i s s mathematician, who was primarily responsible for the Bernoulli principle ( the pressure of a fluid falls when it is moving ) 44  § Joseph Black, Scottish chemis t , who conducted a study on calcium c a r b o n a t e degeneration and the extraction of carbon dioxide 45  Henry Cavendish, he illustrated that water was made of two parts of hydrogen to one of oxygen 46  Jan Ingenhousz, he demonstrated how green plants emitted oxygen under the sun and carbon dioxide in the dark 47  § Antoine Lavoisier, he explained that many elements, including carbon and phosphorus could burn by combining with oxygen to form oxides 48  Joseph Proust, a French chemist who figured out that chemical elements, most of the time merged in exact shares which was an essential step toward knowing the production of simple compounds 49  qThe Field of Earth Sciences §B e n j a m i n Franklin, he was able to show big- scale ocean currents flowed at the bottom of the sea with his inquiries of the Gulf Stream 50 51  § George Hadley, an E n g l i s h meteorologist, who expounded in a paper the impact of trade winds in relation to the rotation of the globe 52  Nevil Maskelyne, he took advantage of Newton’s idea, by taking measurements of the gravitational pull of a mountain in Scotland, and in the process, was able to find out the density of the earth 53  James Hutton, he became engrossed in geology and soon made the conclusion that the earth was a little bit older than anyone had previously believed 54  qThe Basis of Life § Georges-Louis Leclerc, a French naturalist and mathematician, was one of those who pioneered the creation of a theory of evolution 55  Christian Sprengel, German theologian who made the conclusion that bisexual flowers did not have the ability to fertilize themselves because they produced male and female flowers at different 56 periods  § Thomas Malthus, he focused on specifics about demography and predicted the end of the world if population growth was left unchecked 57  Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist who made big strides with the iconic invention of the electric battery 58  § William Whewell, an English philosopher who introduced the creation of a new professi on se pa ra t e f r o m t h a t o f philosophy i.e he suggested a name for this man of science: the scientist 59  q A Hundred Years of Development (1800-1900) § Danish Hans Christian Orsted, he established a connection between electricity and magnetism 60  Michael Faraday, he invented the world’s first electric motor 61  James Clerk Maxwell, he solved the complex mathematics of electromagnetism 62  q Invisibility Matters § William Herschel, he discovered the existence of infrared radiation, and thus proved that there was more than meets the eye in the spectrum aside from visible light. 63  William Roentgen, he discovered x- r a y s i n h i s experiments in Germany 64  Thomas Young, he put to rest the argument of whether light was a wave or a particle by discovering w a v e l i k e interference in his studies 65  §C h r i s t i a n Doppler, an A u s t r i a n physicist who made famous the “Doppler Effect” by expounding on the color of binary stars 66  Hippolyte Fizeau a n d L e o n Foucault, they were able to measure the speed of light and concluded that light traveled faster in air than in water 67  q Chemical Reactions § John Dalton, a B r i t i s h meteorologist, chemist, and physicist. He is best k n o w n f o r introducing the atomic theory into chemistry. 68  §Jons Jakob Berzelius, Swedish chemist who made a full list of atomic weights. He discovered silicon Selenium, Thorium, and Cerium. 69  Louis Pasteur, a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases, and his discoveries have saved 70 many lives ever since.  August Kekule, a German chemist who discovered the structure of the benzene molecule 71  D m i t r i Mendeleev, Russian chemist who was able to solve the problem of the periodic table of elements 72  Marie Curie, a Polish and naturalized- French physicist and c h e m i s t w h o conducted pioneering r e s e a r c h o n radioactivity. She was able to separate polonium from radium. 73  q Relics from the Past § Mary Anning , she presented a substantial collection of fossils of extinct animals 74  Richard Owen, an English biologist who pioneered the use of the word “dinosaurs” to describe the “terrible lizards” that once were kings on earth 75  Louis Agassiz, he forwarded the view that big parts of the planet w e r e o n c e covered with impregnable ice 76  Alexander von Humboldt, he was able to uncover the connections inherent in nature and, thus, founded the study of ecology 77  Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin, British naturalists who came up with the idea on the p r o c e s s o f evolution by means of natural selection 78  Thomas Henry H u x l e y , h e illustrated that birds could have evolved from the new- extinct dinosaurs 79  Gregor Mendel, he created the science of genetics 80  The Dawn of a New Era (1900 to 1945) q A New-look Physics § Max Planck, he made an important discovery that electromagnetism traveled in distinct packets and not in continuous waves as previously thought of 81  Albert Einstein a G e r m a n - b o r n theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics. His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. 82  q Wave-particle Dilemma § Joseph John Thomson, an English physicist who was the first to discover t h e electron, unearthing its negative charge and the w a v e - l i k e characteristics of its particles 83  E r w i n Schrodinger, he made an array of equations that fully described the probability of finding a particle in a specific place and state 84  Werner Heisenberg, he illustrated that there was a probable uncertainty to the values of place and momentum and soon enough, this was later found out to be fundamental to the overall structure of the 85 universe  qHarnessing the Atom Ernest Rutherford, he first illustrated that the atom was made basically of space, comprising of a small, dense nucleus and electrons orbiting around it 86  Linus Pauling, a Chemist who took advantage of the picture of an atom and was then able to explain how atoms bonded to each other with the use of quantum physics 87  John Robert Oppenheimer, he was tasked to lead the Manhattan Project , an undertaking to produce the first nuclear weapons ever made 88  q New Concept of the Universe Edwin Hubble, an American astronomer who found out that nebula e were in reality, distant galaxies. He also made the observation that the universe was expanding in all directions. 89  Georges Lemaitre, a Belgian priest and physicist who suggested that the universe came into being from a “ primeval atom” (Big Bang Theory) 90  Fritz Zwicky, an Astronomer who invented the term “dark matter” to elucidate why the Coma Galaxy Cluster seemed to exude 400 times as much mass as observed from its gravitational pull 91  Substantial Discoveries (1945 to Present) q The Origin of Life Harold Urey and Stanley Miller, they conducted an experiment to know whether life on earth started when chemical reactions were sparked by lightning 92  James Watson and Briton Francis Crick, they were able to dissect the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. 93  Lynn Margulis, she expounded on the theory that organisms absorbed each other and continued with their existence, resulting in the production of complex c e l l s o f a l l multicellular life forms 94  Michael Syvanen, he was able to illustrate how genes could have the ability to transfer from one species to another, and thus, strengthened the view that evolution could really have taken place 95  Craig Venter, using his own experiments, he had created artificial life by carefully outlining its DNA on his computer 96  Ian Wilmut, he finally succeeded in the cloning of a sheep 97  qThe Nature of Particles Richard Feynman, he further studied inquiries of quantum mechanics and concluded that quantum interactions happened in terms of exchange of “virtual” particles 98  – Paul Dirac, he predicted the existence of anti- matter 99  Sheldon Glashow, h e m e r g e d electromagnetism with the weak nuclear force and transformed it into one “electro-weak” theory 10 0  Hugh Everett III, he made a unique proposa l t h a t t h e re m i g h t b e a mathematical basis for concluding that there could be the real existence of more than one universe 10 1