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Anatomy & Physiology CU 1-The HUMAN BODY Ppt by tjsalcedo’24  Students Learning Outcomes: ▪ Discuss the levels of anatomy & physiology. ▪ Explain the importance of the relationship between structure &...

Anatomy & Physiology CU 1-The HUMAN BODY Ppt by tjsalcedo’24  Students Learning Outcomes: ▪ Discuss the levels of anatomy & physiology. ▪ Explain the importance of the relationship between structure & function & ascertain two major goals of physiology. ▪ Discuss the six levels of organization of the body, & the major characteristics of each level. ▪ Discuss the eleven organ systems, identify their components, & describe the major functions of each system. ▪ Discuss the six different characteristics of life. ▪ Define & discuss homeostasis, & explain why it is important for proper body function. ▪ Discuss the negative-feedback mechanism & positive-feedback mechanism & give an example for each. ▪ Describe a person in anatomical position. Define the directional terms for the human body, & use them to locate specific body structures.  INTRODUCTION Learning about Human Anatomy and Physiology is important for understanding the disease and prepares for treatments and evaluation. Ex. Know the structures and functions. Human is a very complex multicellular organism in which the maintenance of life depends upon a vast number of physiological & biochemical activities. Humans have many ways to maintain homeostasis, the state relative stability of the body’s internal environment. Disruptions to homeostasis often set in motion corrective cycles, called feedback systems, that help restore the conditions needed for health & life.  INTRODUCTION WHY STUDY HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY? ❖ Know about the human body which has many intricate parts with coordinated functions maintained by complex system of balances. ❖ Comprehend how the body responds to stimulus. ❖ Provide basis for understanding the disease. ❖ Prepare health care team to provide care & evaluate treatments.  TERMINOLOGIES Anatomy - study of the structures of the body. Physiology - deals with processes & functions of the body. Human Anatomy & Physiology - study of the structure & function of the human body. Organelles - small structures that make up some cells. Organism - any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human. Metabolism - ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, & reproduction Growth - refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism. Reproduction - formation of new cells or new organisms.  ANATOMY Anatomy - scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body. It means to dissect, or cut apart & separate, the parts of the body for study. (Vanputte, Regan, & Russo, 2022) Studying anatomy involves structure of body parts, its microscopic organization, how each develops including its relationships & functions. 2 Basic approaches in anatomy namely: 1. Systemic - dwells on body systems such as skeletal & muscular system. 2. Regional - organization of the body by areas or reviews specific areas. Ex. head, abdomen, arm. 2 General approaches of anatomists are ways to examine a living person : 1. Surface Anatomy - focuses study of external features like bony projections. Ex. Sternum 2. Anatomical imaging - utilizes different imaging samples like X- rays, ultrasound & magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to evaluate internal structures.  PHYSIOLOGY PHYSIOLOGY - deals with processes or functions of living human organism. GOALS OF PHYSIOLOGY: 1. to understand & predict body’s responses to different stimuli. 2. to understand how the body maintains homeostasis. (changes) (Vanputte, Regan, & Russo, 2022) Therefore, Physiology is the science of body functions. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011) SUBDIVISIONS OF PHYSIOLOGY - focuses on different organizational level: 1. Cellular physiology (inside cells)-way cells work & interact 2. Systemic physiology (functions)- specific organ systems how they function. For the human as a specific organism, the study is called Human Physiology. (Vanputte, Regan, & Russo, 2022) HUMAN BODY - STRUCTURAL & FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATON There are six structural levels that our body can be studied & these are chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system & organism as shown below in figure 1.  CHEMICAL LEVEL of ORGANIZATION Chemical Level - deals with how different atoms like hydrogen & carbon interact and combine to form molecules. Cell Level - which is the basic unit of organisms, we correlate how a molecular substance affects a living organism. Ex. our cells contains nucleus that contains hereditary information. And though cells differ in structure & function, knowledge of these differences would help in grasping concepts of anatomy & physiology. Tissue Level - Tissues are combined cells that are similar. Their similarity in characteristics & surrounding materials determines its functions. Organ Level - When two or more tissue types work together to perform one or more functions, this is called Organ. Ex. Heart, stomach, liver, even our brain (figure 1.2).  ORGAN SYTEM Organ System Level - pertains to group of organs working together as a unit to sustain a specific function. Ex. The work of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureter & urethra displays coordinated function for the urinary system to be efficient in its purpose. But though this system has specific roles to perform, remember that all systems are interrelated. Problem on one organ system may have serious effects on other systems. Figure 1.3 provides an illustration of the different organ systems in the human body. Organism Level - last level as a living organism considered as a whole, whether composed of only one cell such as bacterium, or one that is made of trillions of cells like us human.  CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE Humans share one or many characteristics with other organism. The most common is life. (Vanputte, Regan, & Russo, (2022) These are characteristics of life: 1. Organization – living things are highly organized. They have specific interrelationships to perform functions essential for the living organism to thrive. In effect, any problems that affects its organization will greatly disrupt its function. 2. Metabolism – ability to use energy to perform vital functions. Chemical reactions takes place in an organism. Ex. Growth, reproduction. Catabolism - Ability of an organism to break down food molecules which are used as a source of energy & raw materials to synthesize the organism’s own molecules. Anabolism - to use energy to perform functions essential to growth, movement. 3. Responsiveness – capability to react or adjust to whether a stimulus or a change. Ex. Body perspires when temperature rises during hot weather.  CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE 4. Growth – an increase in number or length. In the human body, growth is an evidence when bones become larger as the number of bone cells increases. 5. Development – occurs when an organism changes through time. Like the developmental changes happening before birth, a human being changes through time. Though growth signifies development, differentiation also embodies development. Differentiation - change in cell structure & function from a generalized to specialized structures. Ex. Following fertilization, generalized cells specialize to become specific cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These differentiated cells form tissues & organs. 6. Reproduction - ability to form new organism, giving possibility to tissue repairs & continuity.  HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis - (h ′m - -st ′sis; homeo-, the same, stasis- standing still) is the ability to maintain balance despite changes in the internal & external environment. Vanputte, Regan, & Russo, (2022) Ex. Temperature regulation, our body produces sweat in attempt to lower down body temperature caused by the external environment. Since homeostasis involves complex mechanisms, these regulations are also affected by different variables. Variables are conditions like volume, chemical content & in this case, temperature. Their values may easily change & so, does the response of the organism. Ex. Sweating aids in the regulation, maintaining the body temperature near the ideal normal value. If temperature was the variable, the sweating is considered as the Homeostatic mechanism. Most homeostatic mechanisms are governed by the Nervous System or the Endocrine System.  HOMEOSTASIS Note that homeostatic mechanisms are not able to maintain body temperature precisely at the set point (figure 1.4). Instead, body temperature increases & decreases slightly around the set point, producing a normal range of values. As long as body temperatures remain within this normal range, homeostasis is maintained. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2022) Figure 1.4 Homeostasis Homeostasis is the maintenance of the carriable, such as temperature around an ideal normal value or set point. *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2022)  HOMEOSTASIS HOMEOSTASIS is maintained by many feedback systems. ❖ Each monitored condition in a feedback system, or feedback loop, is termed a controlled condition. ❖ Any disruption that causes a change in a controlled condition is called a stimulus. Some stimuli come from outside the body, while others come from within. ❖ In addition to the controlled condition, stimulus, feedback systems have 3 other components: 1. Receptor - monitors the controlled condition & sends information (input) to a control center. 2. Control Center- receives the input, compares it to a set of values that the controlled condition should have (set point) & sends output commands (nerve impulses or chemical signals) to an effector. 3. Effector - receives output commands & produces a response that changes the controlled condition. HOMEOSTASIS  HOMEOSTASIS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM - reverses the change in the controlled condition to restore it to the set point. Ex. Negative feedback system controls blood pressure. POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM - if a feedback system further strengthens a change in the controlled condition. Ex. Childbirth is an example of positive feedback. During labor, uterine contractions force the baby’s head into the cervix, which stretches. The stretching causes the hypothalamus to secrete a hormone called oxytocin, which induces more uterine contractions. Negative feedback systems tend to maintain stable conditions, whereas positive feedback systems tend to be unstable & must be shut off by some event that is outside the feedback loop, such as the delivery of the child. HOMEOSTASIS  HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES The negative feedback system maintain homeostasis & the body stays healthy. However, the normal equilibrium among body processes may be disturbed. If homeostatic imbalance is moderate, a disorder or disease may occur, if it is severe, death may result. DISORDER- abnormality of a structure or function. DISEASE – an illness characterized by a recognizable signs & symptoms. SIGNS – Objective changes SYMPTOMS – Subjective changes. DIAGNOSIS - Identify a disease, disorder, condition, or injury from its signs & symptoms. Ex. Health history, physical exam, tests, such as blood tests, imaging tests, & biopsies.  TERMINOLOGY & THE BODY PLAN BODY POSITIONS Anatomical Positions – describes any part of the human body assume that the body is in a specific position. The body is upright when the subject stands erect with the head level, eyes facing forward, feet at on the floor, & directed forward, & arms at the sides, with the palms turned forward. However, two terms describe a reclining body: PRONE POSITION - Refers to lying face downward. Body is lying face down SUPINE POSITION - Refers to lying face upward (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2022)  TERMINOLOGY & THE BODY PLAN DIRECTIONAL TERMS - refer to the anatomical position, regardless of the body’s actual position. Directional terms describe parts of the body relative to each other. These are generally grouped in pairs of opposites. Ex. Superior - towards the upper part of the body Inferior- towards the lower part of the body. TERMINOLOGY & THE BODY PLAN  DIRECTIONAL TERMS TERMS ETYMOLOGY DEFINITION EXAMPLES Right Toward the body’s right The right ear side Left Toward the body’s left The left ear side The stomach is to the left of the liver Inferior Lower Below The nose is inferior to the forehead Superior Higher Above The mouth is superior to the chin Anterior To go before Toward the front of the The teeth are anterior to the throat. body Posterior Posterus, Toward the back (rear) of The brain is posterior to the eyes. following the body The heel is posterior to the toes. Dorsal Dorsum, Toward the back The spine is dorsal to the breast back (posterior) bone Ventral Venter, belly Toward the belly The navel is ventral to the spine. (anterior)  DIRECTIONAL TERMS TERMS ETYMOLOGY DEFINITION EXAMPLES Proximal Proximus, Toward the trunk, The elbow is proximal to the wrist. nearest Closer to a point of attachment Distal Di + sto, to Farther to a point of The knee is distal to the hip. be distant attachment Lateral Latus, side Toward the side. Away The nipple is lateral to the from the midline of the breastbone. body The eyes are lateral to the nose. Medial Medialis, Toward the middle or The bridge of the nose is medial middle midline of the body to the eye. The eyes are medial to the ears. Superficial Superficialis, Toward or on the The skin is superficial to the surface surface muscle. Deep Deop Away from the surface, The lungs are deep to the ribs internal TERMS ETYMOLOGY DIRECTIONAL TERMS DEFINITION EXAMPLES Unilateral Latin unus On one side of the body Stroke can result in unilateral weakness, 'one’ meaning weakness on one side of the body Bilateral Latin bis On both sides of the body Bilateral orchiectomy means removal of testes 'twice' on both sides Ipsilateral On the same side of the body or With respect to the midline of the body (in a in reference to a given point standing position) the left arm& left leg are ipsilateral to one another. Contralateral Using/on opposite sides of your The right arm & leg are controlled by the left, body. contralateral, side of the brain. OTHER TERMINOLOGIES Visceral Toward an internal organ away The organ is covered with the visceral layer of from the outer wall. the serous membrane. Parietal Toward the wall away from the The abdominal cavity is lined with parietal internal organs peritoneal serous membrane. Medullary Medulla Refers to the inner region The medullary portion of the organ contains nerve tissue. Cortical Cortex Refers to the outer region The cortical area produces hormones.  PRACTICE - DIRECTIONAL TERMS 1. What is the other name for anterior? 4. The skin is _________ to the skeletal bones. a. Dorsal a. superior b. Ventral b. proximal c. Cranial c. superficial d. Caudal d. inferior 2. The word posterior means: 5. What’s another word for “superior?” a. At or toward the front of the body a. Internal b. Away from the insertion point of a b. Caudal structure. c. External c. At the back or rear of the body. d. Cranial d. Toward the middle of the body. 6. The nose is ________to the navel. 3. The wrist is________ to the elbow. a. superior a. proximal b. proximal b. distal c. superficial c. anterior d. inferior d. Inferior  BODY PARTS AND REGION Figure 1.6 illustrates different regions in the body. This helps to properly identify specific area/s of the patient’s body to be evaluated upon. Central regions of the body: ❖ Head ❖ Neck ❖ Trunk The trunk can be divided into: ❖ Thorax (chest), ❖ Abdomen (region between the thorax & pelvis) ❖ Pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips). The upper limb is divided into: ❖ Arm ❖ Forearm ❖ Wrist ❖ Hand ❖ The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow. ❖ The forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist. The lower limb is divided into: ❖ Thigh ❖ Leg ❖ Ankle ❖ Foot The thigh extends from the hip to the knee. The leg extends from the knee to the ankle. (Vanputte, Regan, & Russo, 2022) Make sure to familiarize because these terms would facilitate better communication between health care providers.  Abdominal Regions & Quadrants ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY - Portion of the body that occupies a large area. Determining the exact location of possible problems concurrent to different organ/s can be difficult. For this reason, it was subdivided further into regions & quadrants. It is also best to appreciate that some organs may extend over multiple quadrants as shown in figures 1.7 & 1.8. (Thompson, 2015) Figure 1.7 Abdominopelvic Quadrants *taken from Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011) Abdominal Regions & Quadrants Figure 1.8 Abdominopelvic Regions & some Organs found in each Region *taken from Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)  PLANES OF THE BODY Figure 1.9 Planes of the Body *taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015)  PLANES OF THE BODY Figure 1.9 Planes of the Body *taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015)  ORGAN SECTIONS Organs are often sectioned to reveal their internal structure: ❖ Longitudinal section - A cut through the long axis of the organ or a cut made lengthwise. ❖ Transverse section, or cross section – A cut at a right angle to the long axis or refers to a part cut crosswise. ❖ Oblique section - If a cut is made across the long axis at other than a right angle. Figure 1.10 Planes of Section through an Organ *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2022) Body Cavities The body contains space called cavities that house the internal organs. Two major body cavities are the: ❖ Dorsal cavity ❖ Ventral cavity Each of these cavities is subdivided further, as shown Figure 1.11 Body Cavities *taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015)  BODY CAVITIES DIVISIONS OF DORSAL CAVITY & ORGANS WITHIN: 1. Cranial Cavity – Within the skull. Ex. Brain 2. Spinal Cavity – Within the vertebral column Ex. Spinal Cord DIVISIONS OF VENTRAL CAVITY & ORGANS WITHIN: 1. Thoracic Cavity – Within the rib cage. ❖ Pleural Cavity – Left 1/3 & Right 1/3 of the thoracic cavity. Ex. Right & Left Lung ❖ Mediastinum – Middle 1/3 of thorax. Ex. Heart, trachea & esophagus 2. Abdominopelvic Cavity - From the diaphragm to the bottom of the trunk. ❖ Abdominal Cavity - from the diaphragm to the rim of the pelvic bones. Ex. Stomach, intestines, spleen ❖ Pelvic Cavity – from the pelvic rim to the floor of the trunk. Ex. Parts of the intestines, ovaries, uterus, urinary bladder. SEROUS MEMBRANES SEROUS MEMBRANES - lines trunk cavities & cover the organs of these cavities. They are filled with minimal fluid to lubricate its surfaces thereby reducing friction. Figures depict different serous membranes found in our body. Vanputte, Regan, & Russo, (2022) Figure 1.12 Location of Serous Membranes *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2022)  SEROUS MEMBRANES The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes. ❖ The parietal part of a serous membrane lines the wall of the cavity ❖ The visceral part covers the internal organs. The serous membranes secrete fluid that fills the space between the parietal & visceral membranes. The serous membranes protect organs from friction. Figure 1.12 Location of Serous Membranes *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2022)  Serous Membranes ❖ Pericardial cavity - surrounds the heart. ❖ Pleural cavities - surround the lungs. ❖ Peritoneal cavity - surrounds certain abdominal & pelvic organs. ❖ Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum that hold the abdominal organs in place & provide a passageway for blood vessels & nerves to organs. ❖ Retroperitoneal organs are found “behind” the parietal peritoneum. Ex. Kidneys; adrenal glands, pancreas, parts of the intestines & Figure 1.12 Location of Serous Membranes *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by the urinary bladder. VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2022)  Serous Membranes. Figure 1.12 Location of Serous Membranes *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2022) SEROUS MEMBRANES SEROUS MEMBRANES  SURFACE REGIONS TERM ANTERIOR SURFACE TERM ANTERIOR SURFACE REGION REGION PUBIC Lower front of trunk b/n thighs ABDOMINAL Area overlying the abdominal cavity TARSAL Ankle ANTE BRACHIAL Fore arm THORACIC Chest AXILLARY Armpit UMBILICAL Navel TERM POSTERIOR SURFACE BRACHIAL Upper Arm REGION BUCCAL Cheek (Side of Mouth) CALCANEAL Heel CARPAL Wrist FLANK Lateral region b/n ribs & pelvis CERVICAL Neck GLUTEAL Buttocks COXAL Hip LUMBAR Lower Back CRURAL Anterior Leg (Shin) POPLITEAL Posterior knee joint CUBITAL Anterior of the Elbow SCAPULAR Shoulder Joint FEMORAL Thigh SURAL Calf References: From Module & New book: + VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2022). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education. Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding Anatomy & Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach,2nd Edition. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company. Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011). Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John Wiley & Ppt by: TJSalcedo’24 Sons, Inc.. Thanks!!! – QUIZ TIME