Introduction To Human Anatomy And Physiology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Daryl Christian E. Inalvez, MD, RND 1 Course Description: This course is 16 weeks long with three hours every week. It is an introduction to the study of the structure and function of the human body. This course introduces the student...

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Daryl Christian E. Inalvez, MD, RND 1 Course Description: This course is 16 weeks long with three hours every week. It is an introduction to the study of the structure and function of the human body. This course introduces the student to the concepts of anatomy and physiology as subjects in the nursing curriculum and begins with how the body is organized from the chemical level to the organismal level. A description of the various cell and tissue types follows and then the student is introduced to the Course objectives: The Anatomy and Physiology is designed to let the student familiar with the basic anatomical structure of the human body. Students will learn what the various organs of the body do to contribute to the overall physiology of the body as well as the interaction between them.  Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy – the study of the structure of the human body Physiology – the study of the function of the human body “The complementarity of structure and function.” 4 Anatomy – the study of the structure and shape of the body and body parts & their relationships to one another. The term anatomy comes from the Greek words meaning to cut (tomy) apart ( ana). Gross Anatomy( Macroscopic Anatomy) – the study of large, easily observable structures (by naked eye), such as the heart or bone. Microscopic Anatomy (Cytology, Histology) – the study of very small structures, where a magnifying lens or microscope is needed. Physiology – the study of how the body and its parts work or function physio =nature , ology = the study of. Like anatomy , physiology has many subdivisions. Neurophysiology Cardiac Physiology  Levels of Organization Subatomic Particles – electrons, protons, and neutrons Atom – hydrogen atom, lithium atom, etc. Molecule – water molecule, glucose molecule, etc. Macromolecule – protein molecule, DNA molecule, etc. Organelle – mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, nucleus, etc. Cell – muscle cell, nerve cell, etc. Tissue – epithelia, connective, muscle and nerve Organ – skin, femur, heart, kidney, etc. Organ System – skeletal system, digestive system, etc. Organism – the human 8 Atoms Molecule Organelle Smooth muscle cell 2 Cellular level 1 Chemical level Cells are made up of Atoms combine to form molecules. molecules. Smooth muscle tissue Cardiovascular system 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar Heart types of cells. Blood vessels Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. 6 Organismal level 5 Organ system level The human organism is made up Organ systems consist of different of many organ systems. organs that work together closely. Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural Organization The human body exhibits 6 levels of structural complexity : 1- Chemical level , the simplest level of structural ladder.At this level atoms combine to form molecules such as water, sugar, & proteins 2- Cellular level the smallest units of living things. 3- Tissue level , groups of similar cells that have a common function 4- Organ level, an organ is a structure composed of 2 or more tissue types that performs a specific function. 5- Organ System is a group of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose (each organ has its own job to do) 6- Organismal level , represents the highest level of structural organization( total of 11 organ systems) 1-INTEGUMENTARY ORGANS  Skin FUNCTIONS  Waterproofs, cushions, protects deeper tissue  Excretes salts & urea; pain, pressure  Regulates body temp; synthesize vitamin D 2-SKELETAL ORGANS  Bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints FUNCTIONS  Protects & supports body organs  Framework for muscles & movement  Hematopoiesis; store minerals 3- MUSCULAR ORGANS  Skeletal muscle (attached to bone) FUNCTIONS  Contraction & mobility (locomotion)  Facial expression, posture  Produce body heat 4- NERVOUS ORGANS Brain, spinal cord, nerves, & sensory receptors FUNCTIONS Fast-acting central control system Responds to external/internal stimuli via nerve impulses (electrical messages) 5- ENDOCRINE ORGANS  Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries, testes…..etc. FUNCTIONS  Slow -acting control system  Glands produce hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, metabolism,…. etc. 6- CIRCULATORY ORGANS  Heart, blood vessels, capillaries &blood FUNCTIONS  Carries O2 nutrients, hormones, & other substances to and from tissue cells  White blood cells protect against bacteria, toxins, tumors  ORGANS 7- LYMPHATIC  Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils FUNCTIONS  Complements circulatory system by returning leaked fluid back to blood vessels  Cleanses the blood; involved in immunity  ORGANS 8- RESPIRATORY  Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, & lungs FUNCTIONS  Keeps blood supplied with O2 & removes CO2  Carries out gas exchanges through air sacs in lungs 9- DIGESTIVE ORGANS  Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus (liver & pancreas) FUNCTIONS  Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood; indigestible food eliminated as feces 10- URINARY (EXCRETORY) ORGANS  Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra FUNCTIONS  Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body (urea & uric acid)  Regulates water, electrolytes, & acid- base balance of the blood 11- REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS  Male  Seminal vesicles, prostate, penis, vas deferens, testis, scrotum  Female  Ovaries, mammary glands, uterus, vagina, uterine tube FUNCTIONS  Primary function for both sexes is to produce offspring  Male – testes produce sperm & male sex hormones  Female – ovaries produce eggs & female sex hormones; mammary glands for nourishment  Characteristics of Life MOVEMENT – change in position; motion It includes the activities promoted by the muscular system, the skeletal system provides the bony framework that the muscles pull on as they work. Movement also occurs when substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through internal organs.  On the cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability to move by shortening is more precisely called contractility. 23  Characteristics of Life MAINTENANCE OF BOUNDARIES  Every living organism must maintain its inside distinct from outside.  All the cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane.  The body as a whole is enclosed and protected by the integumentary system, or skin, which protects our internal organs from drying out, bacteria, heat, sunlight, and chemicals. 24  Characteristics of Life RESPONSIVENESS/IRRITABILITY  the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them. * you involuntarily pull your hand away from the painful stimulus. * When carbon dioxide in your blood rises to dangerously high levels, your breathing rate speeds up.  Because nerve cells are highly irritable and communicate rapidly with each other via electrical impulses, the nervous system is most involved with responsiveness. However, all body cells are irritable to some extent. 25  Characteristics of Life GROWTH – increase in body size; no change in shape It is usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells. However, individual cells also increase in size when not dividing. For true growth to occur, constructive activities must occur at a faster rate than destructive ones 26  Characteristics of Life Reproduction – production of new organisms and new cells making a whole new person which is the major task of the reproductive system. When a sperm unites with an egg, a fertilized egg forms, which then develops into a baby within the mother’s body.  The reproductive system is regulated by hormones of the endocrine system. Because males produce sperm and females produce eggs (ova), there is a division of labor in the reproductive process, and the reproductive organs of males and females are different. The female’s reproductive structures provide the site for fertilization of eggs by sperm, then protect and nurture the 27 developing fetus until birth.  Characteristics of Life DIGESTION/ABSORPTION – breakdown of food substances into simpler forms that can be absorbed into the blood. The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular system. In a simple, one-celled organism such as an amoeba, the cell itself is the “digestion factory,” but in the multicellular human body, the digestive system performs this function for the entire body. 28  Characteristics of Life EXCRETION – removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions The digestive system rids the body of indigestible food residues in feces. The urinary system disposes of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes, such as urea, in urine.  Carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular respiration, is carried in the blood to the lungs, where it leaves the body in exhaled air. 29  Characteristics of Life METABOLISM is a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells. It includes breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks (catabolism), synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances (anabolism), and using nutrients and oxygen to produce (via cellular respiration) ATP, that power cellular activities. Metabolism depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen available to be distributed throughout the body. Metabolism is regulated largely by hormones secreted by endocrine system glands. 30  Characteristics of Life CIRCULATION – movement of substances in body fluids ASSIMILATION – changing of absorbed substances into chemically different forms 31  Maintenance of Life Life depends on five (5) environmental factors: Water Food Oxygen Heat Pressure 32  Requirements of Organisms WATER - most abundant substance in body - required for metabolic processes - required for transport of substances - regulates body temperature - accounts for 60–80% of body weight - the single most abundant chemical substance in the body. 33  Requirements of Organisms FOOD - provides necessary nutrients contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building. - Carbohydrates are the major energy fuel for body cells. - Proteins, and to a lesser extent fats, are essential for building cell structures. - Fats also provide a reserve of energy-rich fuel. - Selected minerals and vitamins are required for the chemical reactions that go on in cells and for oxygen transport in the blood. The mineral calcium helps to make bones hard and is required for blood clotting. 34  Requirements of Organisms OXYGEN (GAS) one-fifth of air It is made available to the blood and body cells by the cooperative efforts of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. used to release energy from nutrients All the nutrients in the world are useless unless oxygen is also available. Because the chemical reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions that require oxygen, human cells can survive for only a few minutes without oxygen. 35  Requirements of Organisms HEAT/TEMPERATURE form of energy partly controls rate of metabolic reactions If chemical reactions are to continue at life-sustaining rates, normal body temperature must be maintained. As body temperature drops below 37°C (98.6°F), metabolic reactions become slower and slower, and finally stop. When body temperature is too high, body proteins lose their characteristic shape and stop functioning. At either extreme, death occurs. Most body heat is generated by the 36 activity of the muscular system.  Requirements of Organisms PRESSURE Atmospheric pressure is the force that air exerts on the surface of the body. Breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes, where atmospheric pressure is lower and the air is thin, gas exchange may be inadequate to support cellular metabolism. 37  The mere presence of these survival factors is not sufficient to sustain life. They must be present in appropriate amounts; excesses and deficits may be equally harmful. 38  Homeostasis* * Maintaining of a stable internal environment Describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world is continuously changing The literal translation of homeostasis is “unchanging,” ( homeo= the same, stasis = standing still which is not true). indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance, in which internal conditions vary, but always within relatively narrow limits. 39  The body is in homeostasis when its needs are adequately met and it is functioning smoothly. 40  Homeostatic Control Mechanism Communication within the body is essential for homeostasis. and is accomplished chiefly by the nervous and endocrine systems, which use neural electrical impulses or blood borne hormones, respectively, as information carriers. 3 components: Receptor - provides information about the stimuli Control Center - tells what a particular value should be (called the set point) Effector - elicits responses that change conditions in the 41 internal environment  4 Output: 3 Input: Information Information sent along sent along afferent Control efferent pathway to pathway to control Center effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway 2 Receptor Effector Receptor 5 detects Response change. of effector feeds back IMB to reduce ALA the effect of 1 N CE stimulus Stimulus and returns produces variable to BALANCE change in homeostatic variable. level. IMB ALA N CE Figure 1.4  Homeostatic Control Mechanisms There are two (2) types: Negative feedback mechanisms Positive feedback mechanisms 43  Homeostatic Control Mechanisms NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SUMMARY: Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body Corrects the set point Causes opposite of bodily disruption to occur, i.e. the ‘negative’ Most common type of feedback loop Examples: body temperature, blood pressure & glucose regulation 44 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms POSITIVE FEEDBACK SUMMARY: Increases (accelerates) the actions of the body short-lived do not require continuous adjustments Examples: blood clotting and child birth 45  LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. ANATOMICAL POSITION – standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward and thumbs out Integumentary system 46  Anatomical Terminology: Orientation and Directional Terms Terms of Relative Position (based on anatomical position): Superior versus Inferior (Cranial vs. Caudal) Anterior versus Posterior (Ventral vs. Dorsal) Medial versus Lateral Ipsi-lateral versus Contra-lateral Proximal versus Distal Superficial versus Deep Internal versus External 47 DIRECTIONAL TERMS Superior (cranial or cephalad) – toward the head end or upper part of a structure or body; above Inferior (caudal) – away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or body; below Anterior (ventral) – toward or at the front of the body; in front of Posterior (dorsal) – toward or at the backside of the body; behind Medial – toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of Lateral – away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of Proximal – close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. Distal – farther from the origin of a body or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. Superficial (external) – toward or at the body surface. Deep (internal) – away from the body surface; more internal. 50 1. The navel is --------------to the breastbone 2. The heart is ------------- to the breastbone 3. The arms are ------------ to the chest 4. The elbow is ------------ to the wrist 5. The skin is ------------- to the skeleton 6. The forehead is ------------------ to the nose 7. The breastbone is------------ to the spine 8. The heart is ------------to the arm 9. The armpit is ---------between the breastbone and the shoulder 10. The knee is ---------to the thigh 11. The lungs are ---------to the rib cage The navel is inferior to the breastbone The heart is posterior to the breastbone The arms are lateral to the chest The elbow is proximal to the wrist The skin is superficial to the skeleton The forehead is superior to the nose The breastbone is anterior to the spine The heart is medial to the arm The armpit is intermediate between the breastbone and the shoulder The knee is distal to the thigh The lungs are deep to the rib cage Planes SAGITTAL PLANE – divides body into right and left parts. MIDSAGITTAL aka MEDIAN PLANE – divides body into two equal halves. Planes FRONTAL aka CORONAL PLANE – divides body into anterior and posterior parts Planes TRANSVERSE PLANE aka CROSS SECTION/HORIZONT AL SECTION - divides body into upper and lower parts  Body Sections (a) (b) (c) 56  Other Body Sections L o n g i t u d i n n tio Cross-section e sec a l i qu l Ob s e c t 57 i (a) (b) (c) o Regional terms There are many visible landmarks on the surface of the body: Anterior body landmarks Posterior body landmarks ANTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS Abdominal: The anterior Coxal: The hip body trunk region Deltoid: The roundness of inferior to the ribs the shoulder caused by Antecubital: The anterior the underlying deltoid surface of the elbow muscle Axillary: The armpit Digital: The fingers or toes Brachial: The arm Femoral: The thigh Buccal: The cheek Fibular: The side of the leg Carpal: The wrist Inguinal: The groin Cervical: The neck region Mammary: The breast Manus: The hand THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY Nasal: The nose Oral: The mouth Sternal: The region Orbital: The bony eye of the breastbone socket (orbit) Tarsal: The ankle Patellar: The anterior Thoracic: The chest knee (kneecap) region Umbilical: The navel Pelvic: The pelvis region Pubic: The genital region POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS Cephalic: The head Femoral: The thigh Popliteal: The back of the Fibular: The side of the knee leg Sacral: The area Gluteal: The buttocks, between the hips or rump Scapular: The scapula or Lumbar: The area of the the shoulder blade area back between the ribs Sural: The calf or and hips; the loin posterior surface of the leg Occipital: The posterior aspect of the head or Vertebral: The area of base of the skull the spinal column  BODY CAVITIES DORSAL BODY CAVITY - protects the fragile nervous system organs Two Subdivisions cranial cavity, in the skull, encases the brain. vertebral, or spinal, cavity, which runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord. The cranial and spinal cavities are continuous with one another  BODY CAVITIES VENTRAL BODY CAVITY - more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities - Two Subdivisions: thoracic; abdominopelvic - houses internal organs collectively called the viscera. They are separated by the diaphragm - The abdominopelvic cavity, as its name suggests, has two parts not physically separated by a muscular or membrane wall. - The inferior part, the pelvic cavity, lies in the bony pelvis.  Thoracic & Abdominal Serous Membranes Visceral layer – covers an organ Parietal layer – lines a cavity or body wall Thoracic Membranes Abdominopelvic Membranes Visceral pleura Parietal peritoneum Parietal pleura Visceral peritoneum Visceral pericardium Parietal perineum Parietal pericardium Visceral perineum 66  Abdominal Subdivisions Right Left hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac region region region Right upper Left upper quadrant quadrant (RUQ) (LUQ) Right Umbilical Left lumbar region lumbar region region Right lower Left lower quadrant quadrant Right Hypogastric Left (RLQ) (LLQ) iliac region iliac region region 67 Abdominopelvic Regions -The epigastric region is located superior to the umbilical region (epi = upon, above; gastri = belly). -The hypogastric (pubic) region is located inferior to the umbilical region (hypo = below). -The right and left iliac, or inguinal, regions (ing′gwĭ-nal) are located lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac = superior part of the hip bone). -The right and left lumbar regions lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus = loin). -The right and left hypochondriac regions flank the epigastric region laterally (chondro = cartilage). Abdominopelvic Quadrants