Psychology Research Methods Lecture 1 Notes PDF

Bachelor of Social Sciences (Honours) in Psychology Research Methods in Psychology Lecture 1 Introduction and Basics of Research Methods  Academic Policies and Regulations  See Student Handbook, Program Handbook https://www.eduhk.hk/re/student_handbook/ ...

Bachelor of Social Sciences (Honours) in Psychology Research Methods in Psychology Lecture 1 Introduction and Basics of Research Methods  Academic Policies and Regulations  See Student Handbook, Program Handbook https://www.eduhk.hk/re/student_handbook/  The Science of Psychology Psychologists  Develop theories  Conduct research  Answer questions about behavior and mental processes  Scientific Method  An abstract concept  Not a particular technique or method  Ways in which scientists ask questions about behavior, thoughts and feelings  Logic and methods used to gain answers  Two characteristics: empirical approach and skeptical attitude  Group Discussion Let’s take legal system as an example, identify:  An assumption made in seeking truth  Rules or guidelines in seeking evidence for truth  A decision rule for claiming truth  Conclusion  Science, like the legal system and other societal institutions, is guided by - assumptions - rules of evidence - decision rules  This research methods course provides an introduction to the scientific method  Scientific method is one of the ways of knowing truth  Getting Started Doing Research Three basic questions:  What should I study?  How to develop research hypothesis for testing?  Is the research question a good one?  What should I study? Choose a research topic by reviewing  Psychology journals  Textbooks  Courses  Develop hypothesis Research hypothesis (plural: hypotheses)  A statement in the form of a prediction and an explanation  It provides direction for the research Example hypothesis  It is hypothesized that research participants who play violent video games will behave more aggressively than participants who passively watch televised violence because video-game participants’ aggression is reinforced (rewarded) while playing the game Different hypothesis  It is hypothesized that research participants who play violent video games will behave less aggressively than participants who passively watch televised violence because video-game participants have the opportunity to release aggressive impulses Characteristics of good hypotheses:  Plausible 似合理的  Refutable 可駁倒的  Testable  Have clearly defined concepts (operational definitions) that can be observed and measured How to develop a hypothesis?  Imagine how you would behave in a situation  Consider similar problems and responses  Perform sustained observations of a person or phenomenon  Use ideas or theories from other disciplines  Read reports of psychological research  Group Discussion The concepts in the following pairs have been shown to be related. Identify a testable hypothesis for why they might be related. A) stress / smoking behavior B) anxiety / test performance  Is the research question a good one?  What is the scope of this question?  What are the likely outcomes to carry out the research?  Is the question theoretically important?  Is the question practically important?  Anyone interested in the results?  Multimethod Approach  No single research method can answer all of the different questions in psychology  Each method has strengths and limitations  Using multimethod approach can achieve more complete understanding of psychological phenomenon  Some Research Methods  Correlational research - investigate the relationships among variables - e.g. survey, case study, observation  Experimental research - investigate the cause-and-effect relationship among variables Basics of Research Methods  Approaches to Gaining Knowledge Nonscientific Scientific General Approach Intuitive Empirical Observation Casual, Systematic, uncontrolled controlled Reporting Biased, subjective Unbiased, objective Concepts Ambiguous Clear Instruments Inaccurate, Accurate, precise imprecise Measurement Not valid or reliable Valid and reliable Hypotheses Untestable Testable Attitude Uncritical, accepting Critical, skeptical  General Approach Nonscientific  Intuitive  Judgments are based on “what feels right” Scientific  Empirical  Judgments are based on direct observation and experimentation  Observation Nonscientific  Casual, uncontrolled  Personal biases and other factors affect observation Scientific  Systematic, controlled  Control is the essential ingredient of science  Experiment involves the greatest control; experiment has at least one independent variable and one dependent variable Independent variable (IV)  Factor that is controlled/manipulated in order to determine its effect on behavior  Must have at least two levels or conditions (experimental condition vs control condition) Dependent variable (DV)  Measure of behavior that is used to assess the effect of IV  Most studies involve several DVs  Example 1 In the Pennebaker and Francis (1996) study on adjustment to college, students wrote about their emotions associated with beginning college or they wrote about superficial events that took place during their day. Pennebaker and Francis obtained information about the participants’ GPA and their frequency of visiting the student health center. What is the independent variable and what are the dependent variables?  Example 2 In a study on factors that influence people’s willingness to help others, a researcher mimicked (copied) the behavior of participants (e.g., sitting position, posture) or did not mimic the participants’ behavior. The researcher then dropped pens and observed whether participants helped to pick up the pens. What is the independent variable and what is the dependent variable?  Reporting Nonscientific  Biased, subjective  Personal impressions Scientific  Unbiased, objective  Separate observations from inferences  Interobserver agreement  Concepts Nonscientific  Ambiguous Scientific  Clear, specific definitions  In psychology, “construct” means concept  Examples of psychological constructs: aggression, depression, emotion, intelligence, memory, personality, stress, well-being  Operational definition is the procedure used to produce and measure a construct Advantages of operational definitions  Define constructs specifically  Allow clear communication Disadvantages of operational definitions  Limitless number of operational definitions for any construct  Some operational definitions may be meaningless Match each construct with an operational definition  Instruments Nonscientific  Inaccurate, imprecise  Accuracy: difference between what an instrument says and what is actually true  Precision: the level at which an event is measured Scientific  Accurate, precise  Measurement Nonscientific  Not valid or reliable  Validity refers to truthfulness. A valid measure is one that measures what it claims to measure.  Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. Scientific  Valid and reliable Reliability  measurement consistency  Test-retest reliability: comparison of scores yielded in two occasions  Alternative form reliability: comparison of scores in two forms of the test  Inter-rater reliability: comparison of scores between raters Validity  Whether the test is measuring what it is supposed to measure  Content validity: whether the content is representative of the domain it is supposed to measure  Criterion-related validity: correlation between the test score and the score of a criterion measure  Construct validity: whether the test is measuring a particular hypothetical construct  Which test is more reliable? Test A Test B Is it reliable? Is it valid? Is it reliable? Is it valid? Is it reliable? Is it valid? Psychological measurement  Constructs have no agreed-upon standards or instrument, e.g. beauty, intelligence, aggression  Researchers develop measures to assess psychological constructs  To be scientific, measures must be reliable and valid  A measure may be reliable but not valid  Hypotheses Nonscientific  Untestable Scientific  Testable; concepts are clearly defined and measured A hypothesis is not testable if it has any of these three characteristics:  Constructs are not adequately defined e.g. People become aggressive following exposure to media violence because the violence is disturbing.  The hypothesis is circular: the event itself is used as an explanation of the event e.g. People become aggressive following exposure to media violence because they become verbally and physically abusive.  The hypothesis appeals to ideas or forces that are not recognized by science e.g. People become aggressive following exposure to media violence because they are overcome by the Devil.  Attitude Nonscientific  Uncritical, accepting  Accept claims without evidence, ignore contradictory evidence Scientific  Critical, skeptical  Goals of the Scientific Method Four research goals  Description  Prediction  Explanation  Application  Description  Define, classify, catalogue or categorize events and their relationships  E.g. psychologists describe symptoms of depression; one operational definition of depression is the list of symptoms in the DSM  Most psychology research is nomothetic, not idiographic  Nomothetic: large sample size, “average” performance of a group  Idiographic: individual case studies  Nomothetic researchers emphasize similarities among individuals  Most psychology research is quantitative, not qualitative  Quantitative: statistical summaries of behavior  Qualitative: verbal summaries of research findings  Prediction  Correlations (relationships) among variables allow researchers to predict mental processes and behavior  Correlation means two measures of the same people, events, or things vary together or go together  E.g. the more stressful life events persons experience (variable 1), the more likely they are to experience physical illness (variable 2)  Based on a correlation, if we know people’s score for variable 1, we can predict their score for variable 2  Correlation does not imply causation  E.g. stressful life events  physical illness ? physical illness  stressful life events ?  Explanation  Researchers understand and can explain a phenomenon when they can identify its cause(s)  Controlled experiments are conducted to identify causes  Causal inference is a statement about the cause of an event or behavior  Three conditions - covariation of events - time-order relationship - elimination of plausible, alternative causes Confounding  When two independent variables covary together, we cannot determine which IV caused effect on DV  For causal inference, experiment must be free of confoundings 因果關係不清晰 Describe the confounding: A psychologist seeks to demonstrate the effectiveness of a new therapy for helping students to cope with stress. One group of students receives the new treatment during the fall term; a second group of students is placed on a waiting list to receive the treatment during the next term (control group). To make sure the students in the control group maintain their interest in the research project, an assistant calls them every week to “check in and see how they’re doing.” The psychologist measures the coping of students in both the treatment and control groups at the end of the fall term and discovers no difference in coping for the two groups and both are coping well. The researcher decides to abandon the new therapy. Intervening variables  Processes or mechanisms used to explain relationship between IVs and DVs Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable insult (present/absent) ? aggressive response amount of time spent studying ? score on a test amount of positive feedback ? improved performance  Application  Apply knowledge and research methods to improve people’s lives  Applied research: research to change people’s lives for the better; often done in real or natural settings  Basic research: research to understand behavior and mental processes and to test theories; often done in laboratory settings  Steps of Research Process 1. Develop a research question 2. Generate a research hypothesis 3. Form operational definitions 4. Choose a research design 5. Evaluate the ethical issues 6. Collect and analyze data; form conclusions 7. Report research results  Reference  Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2014). Research methods in psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapters 1 & 2)  Bachelor of Social Sciences (Honours) in Psychology Research Methods in Psychology Lecture 2 Ethical Issues (Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S., 2014)  Ethical Standards APA Ethics Code  Applies to all psychologists and psychology students  Ethical standards for - research - therapy - teaching - administration  Solve ethical dilemmas 困境  Five Principles for Ethical Conduct  Beneficence and nonmalificence 不傷害原則 忠誠  Fidelity and responsibility 廉潔  Integrity beneficence fidelity nonmalificence  Justice  Respect for people’s rights and dignity 尊嚴 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2020) http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx  Before Conducting Research  The proposed research must be reviewed to determine if it meets ethical standards.  At EdUHK, Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) reviews research proposal to protect the rights and welfare of participants.  Risk/Benefit Ratio  Subjective evaluation of the costs and benefits of a research project to participants, society, researcher and institution  Questions: - Is the research worth it? - Are the benefits greater than the risks? - Will the study produce valid and interpretable results?  Risks in Research  Three different types of risk: - Physical injury - Psychological injury, e.g. mental or emotional stress - Social injury, e.g. embarrassment  Researchers are ethically obligated to protect participants from all risk. Minimal Risk  Harm or discomfort that the participants may experience is not greater than what they might experience in their daily lives or during routine physical or psychological tests “At Risk”  Risk is greater than normal  Increase researchers’ ethical obligation to protect participants’ welfare  Consider alternative methods with lower risk  Exercise 1a Consider whether the participants are at risk: College students complete an adjective checklist to describe their current mood. The researcher seeks to identify depressed students so they can be included in a study that examines cognitive deficits associated with depression. risk = psycho socTalinjulytembarrasing & solution providemoreemotionalsupport donotidentitythem ③ ① , vwlunteerthem ②↑ privacy  Exercise 1b Consider whether the participants are at risk: A psychologist administers a battery of achievement tests to elderly adults in the dayroom of a nursing facility. The psychologist seeks to determine if there is a decline in mental functioning with advancing age.  Exercise 1c Consider whether the participants are at risk: Students in a psychology research methods class witness another student enter their classroom in the middle of the class period, speak loudly and angrily with the instructor, and then leave. As part of a study on eyewitness behavior, the students are then asked to describe the intruder.  Exercise 1d Consider whether the participants are at risk: A researcher recruits students from introductory psychology classes to participate in a study of the effects of alcohol on cognitive functioning. The experiment requires that some students drink 2 ounces of alcohol (mixed with orange juice) before performing a computer game.  Confidentiality  One way to protect participants from social risk is to keep their responses confidential  “Confidential” is different from “anonymous”  To increase confidentiality - remove identifying information - report results in terms of statistical averages  Informed Consent  A social contract  Make clear to participants what they will do in the research and the possible risks  Written informed consent - required when risk is greater than minimal - not required when researchers observe public behavior  Inform participants of all aspects of research that may influence their decision to participate  Allow participants to withdraw at any time without negative consequences  No pressure  Some unable to provide legal consent, e.g. young children, mentally impaired - obtain consent from their parents or legal guardians - obtain “assent” from the participants  Sample Information Sheet and Sample Consent Form http://www.eduhk.hk/ps/en/information.php?s=guideline&id=1689  Exercise 2a Consider whether informed consent is necessary: In a study of the drinking behavior of college students, an undergraduate working for a faculty member attends a fraternity party and records the amount of alcohol consumed by students at the party.  Exercise 2b Consider whether informed consent is necessary: As part of a study of the gay community, a gay researcher joins a gay baseball team with the goal of recording behaviors of the participants in the context of team competition during the season. (All games are played outdoors and may be watched by the public.)  Exercise 2c Consider whether informed consent is necessary: The public bathroom behavior (e.g., flushing, hand washing, littering, graffiti writing) of men and women is observed by male and female researchers concealed in the stalls of the respective washrooms.  Exercise 2d Consider whether informed consent is necessary: A graduate student investigates the cheating behaviors of college students by concealing himself in a projection booth in an auditorium during an exam. From this vantage point, he can see with the aid of binoculars the movements of most students. He records head movements, paper switching, note passing, and other suspicious exam behaviors.  Privacy  The right of individuals to decide how the information about them is communicated to others.  Researcher should explain to participants the ways in which their information will be protected and kept confidential.  Informed consent is not required when researchers observe people’s behavior in public settings.  To decide whether people’s behavior is public or private is not always easy  Consider - Sensitivity of the information - Setting of the information  Deception 欺騙  Occurs when 隱瞞 - information is withheld from participants - participants are intentionally misinformed about aspects of the research  Deception for the purpose of getting people to participate is always unethical  Pros and Cons of Deception Pros: Why do researchers deceive?  To study individuals’ natural behavior  To investigate behaviors and mental processes not easily studied without deception Cons: Why should we not deceive?  Contradict principle of informed consent  Relationship between researcher and participant is not open and honest  Frequent deception makes people suspicious about research and psychology  Deception Deception is justified only when  The study is very important  No other methods are available  Deception would not influence individuals’ decision to participate When deception is used, the researcher must  Inform participants after the research the reasons ⽌ for the deception  Discuss any misconceptions  Remove any harmful effects This is called debriefing  Inform participants about the nature of the research, their role in the study and educate them about the research process  Let participants feel good about the research experience  Research with Animals APA Ethical Standards  Researchers are ethically obligated to protect welfare of animal subjects  Justify any pain, discomfort, death by potential scientific, educational or applied goals  Reporting Psychological Research Publication credit  Acknowledge fairly those who contributed to a research project  Authorship based on scholarly importance of contributions Plagiarism  Do not present substantial portions or elements of another’s work as your own  Cite sources appropriately (See Student Handbook https://www.eduhk.hk/re/student_handbook/ )  Steps for Ethical Decision Making  1. Find out the facts, e.g. procedure, participants  2. Identify the relevant ethical issues, e.g. risk, informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, deception, debriefing 險  3. Decide what is at stake for all parties, e.g. participants, researchers, institutions, society  4. Identify alternative methods or procedures, and consider the practical constraints, consequences and ethical implications of each alternative  5. Decide on the action to be taken  Reference  Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2014). Research methods in psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapter 3)  Bachelor of Social Sciences (Honours) in Psychology Research Methods in Psychology Lecture 3 Survey Research (Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S., 2014)  Survey Research Survey is used to  Describe people’s opinions, attitudes and preferences ⼟veseavchgisy  Make predictions about behavior ① description Survey can be ② prediction 範圍  Specific and limited in scope, or ③ explamation  More global in their goals ④ applicatiow surveyXcontrol → Xcauseoreffect  requirement 正  Survey research involves selecting a sample (or samples) to represent a population⼭and administering questionnaire with a w meaningful = predetermined set of questions  Correlational Research  Assess relationships among naturally occurring variables, e.g. attitudes, preferences, personality traits, feelings, age, sex  Correlation coefficients ② → (r) positive lnegative ① - strength and direction of predictive relationship 6 between two variables - perfect positive correlation (r = +1.00) ( moveinsamedirection) { - perfect negative correlation (r = -1.00)Cmovein spposite - no correlation (r = 0) divection ) ⼗ ⼀ ⼗ ⼀ + ⼀  Obtaining a Sample  Researchers are not interested simply in the responses of those who complete a survey, but they seek to describe the larger population from which the survey was drawn.  Careful selection of a sample allows researchers to generalize findings from the sample to the population.  Basic Terms of Sampling Population  Set of all cases of interest, e.g. current students at EdUHK Sampling frame  List of the members of a population, e.g. all registrar’s list of currently registered students Sample  Subset of the population used to represent the entire population, e.g. students in this class as a sample of all students at EdUHK  Goals of Sampling ⼀  Sample should represent the population  Characteristics of participants in sample should be similar to those of the entire population  E.g. Which sample represents a population that is 50% Bachelor students, 30% Master students, 20% Doctoral students? Sample A Sample B 50 Bachelor students, 100 Bachelor students, 30 Master students, 60 Master students, 20 Doctoral students 40 Doctoral students  Sampling  “Sampling” refers to procedures used to obtain a sample  Two basic approaches - probability sampling - nonprobability sampling  Probability Sampling  The probability that any given individual will appear in the sample is known Some examples of probability sampling:  Simple random sampling  Systematic sampling  Stratified random sampling  Cluster sampling  Simple Random Sampling  All members of population have an equal chance of being selected  It is appropriate when the population is = thesame homogeneous and sampling frame is available  Steps: - draw up the sampling frame - choose the required number of units by random number tables or random numbers generated by computer programme  Systematic Sampling  Sampling units selected at regular intervals  Arrange sampling units in some kind of sequence  Decide fraction of population to be chosen e gY4 就捷 。 →  Choose a random starting point 每 4 個的  Select at regular intervals 第 4個  Assume no underlying patterns in sampling frame  Stratified Random Sampling  Divide population into subpopulations, called strata  Draw random samples from the strata; best to select samples proportional to the strata size Example: 3 :2  Population: 60 Females vs 40 Males  Sampling fraction: one-fourth  Sample: 15 Females vs 10 Males tcare gender → 普通 sampling stratifiedrandomsampling  A1 B1 1正 200 C 1 1D dl 40 ⑩⑩⑩⑩⑧ li 7 cdass 北他是上 8 methodc methodA method B ⼭ difficalt fo domethodB ⼭ clustersampling  Cluster Sampling  A cluster may be a school, a class  Taking a simple random sample of the clusters, even if the size of the clusters is different  All units in the selected clusters are included in the sample  Cluster sampling is preferable when: - It is ethically or logistically inappropriate to sample within cluster - The primary sampling units are widely dispersed  Nonprobability Sampling  No guarantee each member of population has an equal chance to be in sample  Convenience sampling – researcher selects individuals who are available and willing to respond to the survey e. g. 去 c can 揚 scmple  Biased Samples  A biased sample occurs when characteristics of the sample differ systematically from those of the population  Samples can overrepresent or underrepresent a segment of a population  Two sources - Selection bias - Response rate bias → thosecrewillingresponrers. not willing response  Survey Methods  Some methods for obtaining survey data - mail surveys - personal interviews - telephone interviews - internet surveys  Each method has advantages and disadvantages  Choose method based on research question Mail surveys  Quick, convenient, self-administered, best for highly personal or embarrassing topics  Problem of low response rate  Due to response-rate bias, the final sample may not be representative of the population  Little control over how people respond to the questions Personal interviews  Researchers gain more control over how survey is administered  Interviewers can seek clarification of answers and ask questions  Potential problem of interviewer bias  Interviews are costly; interviewers must be highly motivated, carefully trained and supervised Telephone interviews  Complete brief surveys efficiently and with greater access to population  Random-digit dialing to select random samples  Supervise interviewers easily  Problems of selection √ bias, low response rate and interviewer bias ㄟ who hai onllyselect - phone Internet surveys  Efficient, low cost, potential for very large samples  Samples can be very diverse and access typically underrepresented sample  Potential problems of selection bias, response rate bias and lack of control over the research environment Ways to increase response rate  Questionnaire has a “personal touch”  Responding requires minimal effort  Topic of survey is interesting to respondents  Respondents identify with organization or sponsor of survey  Survey Research Designs  Cross-sectional design  Successive independent samples design  Longitudinal design  Cross-Sectional Survey Design Characteristics  One or more samples are drawn from the population at one time e gyear - 4. 1 Goals  To describe the population at that time, make predictions about the population Problem  Cannot assess change over time Successive Independent Samples Design Characteristics howyearlstudentadpottheulife ?  A series of cross-sectional surveys are drawn ! from the population over time; different representative samples are selected each time 1 → Z 02 / Year yeari2022 Goals e. g -  To describe changes in population over time Problem  Cannot determine whether individuals change over time  Noncomparable samples of Onot same group people  Longitudinal Survey Design Characteristics  The same sample of individuals is surveyed more than once Goals  To describe changes in individuals over time Problem  Attrition→ peoplemay dropouttheresearch  Reactivity differentreactiomwhenaskedsamequestions ) -  Cannot tell why people change over time (only menytimes correlations) G Conthol Xexperiment Xany  Test Year 2016 2017 2018 2019 2007 9 age 10 11 12 longitudinal 0 2008 8 9 10 11 surveydesigh Birth Year 2009 7 8 9 10 2010 、 6 7 8 9 succesive cross sectional independent -  Questionnaires  Most frequently used to collect survey data  Measure different types of variables - demographic variables - preferences and attitudes  Self-report scales  Respond using rating scales  All measures must be reliable and valid checktheconsistency peeple payattention ∞  Reliability refers to consistency of measurement - test-retest reliability  Ways to improve reliability - more items - greater variability among individuals on the factor being measured - testing situation free of distractions - clear instructions  Validity refers to the truthfulness of a measure. A valid measure assesses what it is intended to measure. - construct validity  Establishing construct validity - convergent validity: extent to which two measures of the same construct are correlated - discriminant validity: extent to which two measures of different constructs are not correlated  2 x 2 驚盟 / ! ~ NSE[ INSE (I 2 ) RSE O σ Which correlation indicates test-retest reliability? 0 8S. σ Which correlations indicate convergent validity? 0. 80 ↓ ↑ Which correlations indicate discriminant validity? olo  Constructing a Questionnaire  Best choice for selecting a measure - use measure already shown to be reliable and valid in previous research  If no suitable measure is found - create a questionnaire or measure  Creating a reliable and valid questionnaire is not easy Important steps  Decide what information should be sought  Decide what type of questionnaire should be used  Write the first draft of the questionnaire  Have experts review questionnaire and then revise it based on their suggestions  Pretest the questionnaire using sample and conditions similar to the planned administration of the survey  Review results and edit the questionnaire  Establish reliability and validity  Writing Survey Questions  Choose how participants will respond - free-response (open-ended): greater flexibility in responses but difficult to code - closed-response (rating scale, multiple-choice, true-false): responses are quick and easy, easy to score, but may not accurately describe individuals’ responses  Use simple, familiar vocabulary; keep questions short  Write clear and specific questions - avoid double-barreled questions 下⼜重7 - avoid double negatives → very difficnlt 下⼜重定 - avoid leading questions eg l , 親受的 ⾃卑 不直接描述情緒⼤描述情緒. , - avoid loaded (emotion-laded) questions - avoid biased questions  Beware of social desirability tendency  Correlation and Causality  Correlation does not imply causality Example  Correlation between being socially active (A) and life satisfaction (B)  Three possible causal relationships - A causes B - B causes A - Variable C causes both A and B (e.g. number of friends) = spurious relationship  Path Analysis  Statistical procedure to tease apart complex correlational relationships among variables  Mediators: variables used to explain a correlation between two variables  Moderators: variables that affect direction or strength of correlation between two variables Example of path analysis (Evans et al., 2005) Path A represents the direct relationship between poverty and psychological distress. Paths B & C represent the indirect relationship between poverty and psychological distress. “Chaos” mediates the relationship between poverty and psychological distress.  If the relationship between poverty and psychological distress are not observed for all people, then a moderator variable may exist.  Moderator affects the direction and strength of relationship.  Possible moderators: - sex (relationship may exist for boys but not girls) - population density (relationship may exist in urban but not rural areas) - personality features (relationship may exist for low-resilient but not high-resilient people) distresgchigh ) 抗壓⼒ ⼀ 繼啊  Reference  Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2014). Research methods in psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapter 5)  Reference  Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2014). Research methods in psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapter 5)  Reference  Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2014). Research methods in psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapter 5)  Reference  Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2014). Research methods in psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapter 5)  Reference  Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2014). Research methods in psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapter 5)  Reference  Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2014). Research methods in psychology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapter 5)