Personality Summary Notes 2234 PDF

Summary Notes - 2234 Week 2 I. Introduction: Defining and Studying Personality (Slides 1-41) What is personality? This section introduces the concept of personality and its various definitions, including those focusing on enduring patterns of thought, feeling, and behaviour. I...

Summary Notes - 2234 Week 2 I. Introduction: Defining and Studying Personality (Slides 1-41) What is personality? This section introduces the concept of personality and its various definitions, including those focusing on enduring patterns of thought, feeling, and behaviour. It also explores questions surrounding the nature of personality, such as whether everyone has one, where it resides, and whether animals possess personalities. Personality and Individual Differences: This part delves into the interplay between human universals group differences, and individual differences, emphasising the importance of understanding both commonalities and variations among individuals. Personality Theory and its Applications: This section examines the role of personality theory in comprehending the whole person, its connection to psychopathology and wellbeing, and its ability to synthesise knowledge from various psychological domains. Personality and Social Psychology: This part explores the historical distinction and subsequent integration between personality and social psychology, highlighting the interplay between internal factors and situational influences on behaviour. The importance of culture is also underscored. Personality Development: Nature vs. Nurture: This section delves into the ongoing debate about the contributions of nature (genetics, temperament) and nurture (environmental influences) in shaping personality. The complexity of this interplay and the concept of epigenetics are also discussed. Personality: Stable or Changing? This part examines the apparent paradox of personality stability over time while acknowledging the variability of behaviour across different situations.  II. Personality Research and Science (Slides 42-75) Week 2 The Scientific Approach to Personality: This section emphasises the importance of critical appraisal and empiricism in personality research, highlighting the need for logical coherence and empirical support for theories. Replicability and the Importance of Replication: This part discusses the current replicability crisis in science, emphasising the crucial role in replication in ensuring the validity and reliability of scientific findings. Methods of Assessment: This section provides an overview of various methods used in personality research, including: ★ Case studies: This part describes the use of in-depth studies of individuals, particularly in rare cases, to gain insights into personality. The limitations of this approach, such as researchers' bias and limited generalisability, are also discussed. ★ Self-Report Questionnaires: This part explores the use of questionnaires with true/false or Likert scale responses to assess personality traits. Potential issues like deception, lack of insights and biases are also mentioned. ★ Projective Tests: This part introduces the use of ambiguous stimuli, like ink blots or pictures, to elicit in individual interpretations that reveal aspects of personality. Issues with interpretation and examples like the ROrschach and Thematic apperception Test are discussed. Current Directions: Digital Research and Big Data: This section examines the emerging field of digital personality research, focusing on self-presentation in online contexts, the study of “dark niches” like trolling, and the use of remote behaviour sampling through technology. III. Further Considerations and Course Outline (Slides 76-86) Ethnocentrism and the Cultural Context: This section addresses the potential for cultural bias in personality theories, for cultural bias in personality theories, questioning the universality of models developed primarily in Western cultures and contrasting individualistic versus collectivistic cultural perspectives. Egocentrism and Personal Biases:  This part raises the issue of egocentrism in personality theories, acknowledging that researchers’ own experiences and perspectives can influence their understanding of personality theories, acknowledging that researchers’ own experiences and perspectives can influence their understanding of personality. This potential bias is considered both a challenge and a potential source of valuable insight. Course Outline: This section provides a brief overview of the major personality approaches to be covered in the course, emphasising their application to various fields such as defence mechanisms, dreaming, personality disorders, addiction, physical health, criminal behaviour, dark personalities, and wellbeing. Week 3 Psychodynamic Research and Neuropsychoanalysis Part 1: Psychoanalysis Today Addresses the evolution of psychoanalytic theory, moving away from classic Freudian concepts like the id, ego, and superego to a focus on unconscious processes and defence mechanisms. Part 2: Unconscious Processes Research Explores the shift from the historical scepticism surrounding the unconscious to its modern acceptance through the lens of “the new unconscious,” encompassing automatic, nonconscious, and implicit processes. ★ Examples like blindsight and subliminal perception research are provided, highlighting studies on the mere-exposure effect, the automaticity of social behaviour, and emotional eating. ★ Delves into reasons why individuals may lack self knowledge, considering information overload, unconscious social influences, and the role of the “new unconscious” and defence mechanisms. Part 3: Defense Mechanism Research Defines defence mechanisms and their role in protecting individuals from negative emotions, noting their acceptance in contemporary psychology (DSM-5). ★ Briefly outlines the history of defence mechanisms, including Freud’s initial identification of ten different types, and acknowledges the challenges of empirically studying such unconscious processes. ★ Reviews a key critique of defence mechanism research, highlighting the difficulty of observing these processes in action. Part 4: Defensive Personality Styles Part 4: Defensive Personality Styles ​ Introduces repressive coping as a strategy for managing anxiety-provoking information, leading to the concept of "repressors" as individuals with limited self-awareness who actively avoid such information. ​ ​ Explains the methodology for assessing repressive coping using anxiety and defensiveness scores. ​ ​ Examines the potential benefits of repressive coping, including its potential protective effect against PTSD, while acknowledging the high physiological arousal observed in repressors despite their self-reported low anxiety.  ​ Presents the vigilance-avoidance theory to explain the seemingly contradictory low self-reported anxiety but high physiological stress responses in repressors. ​ ​ Shifts focus to another defensive personality style, contrasting "monitors" who are hyper-attentive to threats with "blunters" who actively ignore or downplay them. ​ ​ Describes the Monitor-Blunter Style Scale (MBSS) and its application in tailoring health information, emphasising the effectiveness of matching information style to personality type, especially for blunters. ​ ​ Concludes with a study on cancer patients, revealing that tailoring care plans to monitoring/blunting styles improved patient satisfaction and illness perception. Source 2: Personality PSYU/X2234 Lecture 3: Neuropsychoanalysis & dreams, by A/Prof Simon Boag Part 1: Freud & Neuroscience ​ Revisits Freud’s background in neurology and his aspiration to ground psychological concepts in a biological framework. ​ ​ Highlights Freud's early work, "Project for a Scientific Psychology," which aimed to explain mental processes through neural mechanisms. ​ ​ Emphasises Freud's persistent interest in linking psychological phenomena to neurobiological underpinnings, even suggesting pharmacological approaches to psychological disorders later in his career. Part 2: Freudian Dream Theory & the Brain ​ Introduces Freud's concept of dreams as the "royal road to the unconscious," explaining how dreams manifest repressed desires through a process of censorship and symbolic representation. ​ ​ Examines the connection between dreams and REM sleep, noting the high frequency of dream recall during this sleep stage compared to non-REM sleep. ​ ​ Challenges the activation-synthesis model of dreams, which posits that dreams are meaningless byproducts of random brain activity during REM. ​ ​ Presents evidence from REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder and studies of individuals with brain lesions that challenge the direct link between REM sleep and dreaming. ​ ​ Explores the neuropsychoanalytic perspective on dreams, focusing on the role of the mesolimbic-mesocortical dopamine pathway and its association with motivation and reward. ​ ​ Cites research on dream content in individuals undergoing drug withdrawal as evidence supporting a Freudian interpretation of dreams as expressions of frustrated desires. ​  ​ Concludes by acknowledging the shift in perspectives on dream motivation within the field of neuroscience, moving away from the view of dreams as meaningless to recognizing their ​ potential connection to desires and motivational goals. Part 3: Emergence of Neuropsychoanalysis ​ Defines neuropsychoanalysis as the effort to bridge psychoanalysis and neuroscience, seeking neurobiological evidence for psychoanalytic concepts and updating psychoanalytic theory based on neuroscientific findings. ​ ​ Introduces Jaak Panksepp's work on basic emotional command systems, highlighting seven subcortical systems associated with fundamental emotions like fear, rage, and seeking. ​ ​ Discusses the concept of a "conscious id," challenging the traditional Freudian view of the ego as the seat of consciousness and suggesting that consciousness might originate in subcortical structures related to basic emotions and drives. Part 4: Criticisms of Neuropsychoanalysis ​ Presents the counter-argument against neuropsychoanalysis, emphasising the perceived incompatibility of neuroscience with the core tenets of psychoanalysis. ​ ​ Critics view the neuropsychoanalytic approach as reductionistic and biologically deterministic, undermining the emphasis on subjective experience and complex psychological processes within psychoanalysis.  Week 4 Personality, Health, and Longevity: Exploring the Connections Source 1: Excerpts from "Pasted Text" - PSYU/X2234 Lecture 4: Trait Approaches to Personality I. Trait Approaches (Revision) ​ 1.1 Introduction to Trait Approaches: This section introduces Gordon Allport's contributions to trait psychology, including his distinctions between idiographic and nomothetic approaches and his categorization of cardinal, central, and secondary traits. ​ 1.2 Defining Personality Traits: This section defines personality traits as stable dispositions and discusses their nature-nurture interaction, emphasising the nomothetic approach, which views traits as dimensions. It also introduces the lexical hypothesis and factor analysis as tools for identifying traits. ​ 1.3 Eysenck’s 3 Factor Account: This section explores Eysenck's three-factor model of personality (extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-normality, and psychoticism) and its biological basis in the ascending reticular activation system and limbic system. II. Five Factor Model & Theory ​ 2.1 Introducing the Five Factor Model: This section outlines the Five Factor Model (FFM), its basis in the lexical hypothesis, and its assessment via the NEO-PI-R. It highlights the model's application in job selection. ​ 2.2 The Role of Environment and Culture in FFM: This section discusses the FFM's perspective on the limited impact of environment and culture on personality traits, suggesting traits are primarily shaped by biology but their expression is influenced by culture. ​ 2.3 Universality and Stability of the FFM: This section explores the claim of the FFM as biologically-based human universals, noting the model's replication across various cultures. It also examines the stability of traits with universal age-related changes and challenges to the universality of the FFM with findings from the Tsimane people in Bolivia. III. Personality Disorders & Personality Traits ​ 3.1 Defining Personality Disorders: This section defines personality disorders according to the DSM-5, emphasising their enduring, culturally deviant, inflexible, and distressing nature. ​ 3.2 Categorical Approach to Personality Disorders: This section introduces the DSM-5's categorical model of personality disorders, outlining the three clusters (A, B, and C) and their associated traits. It also discusses the limitations of the categorical model, including co-occurrence of PDs, heterogeneity, and poor reliability. ​ 3.3 The Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD): This section presents the AMPD as an alternative dimensional approach, highlighting its focus on impaired personality functioning and pathological personality traits. It details the five broad domains of pathological traits and their connection to the FFM. ​ 3.4 Clinical Implications and Evaluation of the AMPD: This section explores the clinical implications of the FFM and AMPD for treatment options, focusing on targeted interventions based on specific trait domains. It also evaluates the AMPD's strengths, including clinical correlates and psychometric properties, while acknowledging the ongoing debate regarding its superiority over the categorical model. Source 1: Excerpts from "Pasted Text" - PSYU/X2234 Lecture 5: Personality & Physical Health I. Introduction: The Relevance of Personality to Physical Health ​ 1.1 Leading Causes of Death and Personality's Role: This section introduces the major causes of death in Australia (CHD, dementia, strokes, cancers) and explores the potential role of personality in predicting and explaining these health outcomes. ​ ​ 1.2 Pathways Connecting Personality and Health: This section outlines various ways personality might influence physical health, including behavioural, cognitive, and physiological pathways. ​ ​ 1.3 Methodological Considerations in Personality-Health Research: This section highlights methodological challenges in studying personality and health, such as the complexity of interacting factors, methodological heterogeneity, correlational evidence, and time frame issues. II. Type A & D Personalities and CHD ​ 2.1 Type A Personality and CHD: This section revisits the Type A personality and its historical link to CHD, discussing the proposed mechanism of high blood pressure and stress hormones leading to CHD. It presents research evidence both supporting and contradicting the association. ​ ​ 2.2 Type D Personality and CHD: This section introduces the Type D personality, characterised by negative affect and social inhibition, and examines research findings supporting its association with worse CHD outcomes, including major adverse cardiac events and reduced quality of life. It explores potential mechanisms linking Type D personality to CHD progression, including psychophysiological stress, unhealthy lifestyle, and pessimism affecting treatment adherence. III. Personality and Cancer ​ 3.1 Exploring the Cancer-Prone Personality: This section investigates the concept of a cancer-prone personality, starting with early research suggesting a potential link between low neuroticism and high extraversion with cancer. It presents contradictory findings from prospective studies and examines the validity of the Type-C personality (characterised by repression of emotions and helplessness). ​ ​ 3.2 FFM and Cancer Risk: This section explores research on the FFM and its potential association with cancer risk and mortality, presenting findings from a meta-analysis that found no evidence of a link. IV. Repressive Coping and Physical Health ​ 4.1 Defining Repressive Coping and its Physiological Effects: This section defines repressive coping as a strategy for diverting attention from threats and discusses its association with low reported anxiety but high physiological arousal. ​ ​ 4.2 Repressive Coping and Cancer: This section examines research on the relationship between repressive coping and breast cancer, noting mixed findings and highlighting the challenge of establishing causality. ​ ​ 4.3 Repressive Coping and CHD: This section explores the link between repressive coping and CHD, presenting evidence from a longitudinal study that found repressors at increased risk for death and myocardial infarction. It discusses potential mechanisms behind this association, including underestimation of stress, non-compliance, and physiological stress. ​ ​ 4.4 Outcomes of Repressive Coping Across Various Conditions: This section presents findings from a meta-analysis suggesting that repressive coping is significantly associated with cardiovascular diseases and might be a consequence of cancer diagnosis. V. Personality and Dementia ​ ​ 5.1 Personality Change as a Feature of Dementia: This section introduces dementia and highlights the frequent occurrence of personality changes, such as disinhibition, apathy, suspiciousness, and aggression, as part of the syndrome. ​ ​ 5.2 Personality Change Preceding Dementia Diagnosis: This section presents evidence from a longitudinal study suggesting that personality change often precedes the clinical diagnosis of dementia, with increased rigidity, egocentricity, and impaired emotional control as common manifestations. ​ ​ 5.3 Neuroticism and Conscientiousness as Dementia Risk Factors: This section reviews research on the relationship between specific personality traits and dementia risk, emphasising the consistent findings that high neuroticism increases risk while high conscientiousness might be protective. It explores potential mechanisms linking these traits to dementia, including their association with health behaviours and overall health profile. VI. Personality and Longevity ​ ​ 6.1 Conscientiousness as a Predictor of Longevity: This section focuses on conscientiousness as a consistent predictor of longevity, outlining the key characteristics of this trait, such as impulse control, responsibility, and planning. ​ ​ 6.2 Mechanisms Linking Conscientiousness to Health Behaviours: This section presents evidence from a meta-analysis demonstrating the strong association between conscientiousness and both beneficial and risky health behaviours, providing a potential explanation for its link to longevity.  Week 5 Personality and Crime: Understanding the Links Source 1: PERSONALITY PSYU/X2234 Lecture 6: Personality & addiction, A/Prof Simon Boag I. Types of Addiction ​ This section defines addiction as a brain reward system disorder and differentiates between substance and behavioural addictions, highlighting their prevalence in Australia. II. Is There an ‘Addictive Personality’? ​ This section explores the concept of an ‘addictive personality,’ discussing early research, methodological issues, and problems with the concept, ultimately concluding that no single personality profile accounts for all addictions. III. Personality & Substance Use ​ This section examines the relationship between personality traits (specifically the Five-Factor Model) and substance use, focusing on nicotine and alcohol, drawing on meta-analytic findings. IV. Personality & Addiction ​ This section delves deeper into personality and addiction, examining specific personality profiles associated with various substance and behavioural addictions like drugs, alcohol, gambling, and sex, noting commonalities and differences. V. Does Personality Predict Addiction? ​ This section shifts to prospective studies, investigating whether personality traits can predict future addiction, highlighting findings related to negative emotionality and constraint as risk factors. VI. Can Addiction Change Personality? ​ This section explores the potential for addiction to influence personality traits, examining research on brain changes, impulsivity, aggression, and the possibility of personality changes during recovery. Source 2: PERSONALITY PSYU/X2234 Lecture 7: Personality & crime, A/Prof Simon Boag I. Introduction ​ This section introduces the topic by outlining types of crimes, challenging the notion of a ‘born criminal,’ and discussing non-personality-related risk factors for crime, including age, gender, and socioeconomic factors. II. Personality & Crime ​ This section investigates the link between ‘normal’ personality traits and crime, exploring research comparing prisoners and non-prisoners, and highlighting the role of traits like negative emotionality and low constraint. III. Dark Personality Traits & Crime ​ This section introduces dark personality traits, specifically psychopathy and narcissism, and examines their association with criminal behaviour, particularly focusing on white-collar crime. IV. Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)  ​ This section provides a detailed overview of Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD), including its diagnostic criteria, prevalence, comorbidity with substance abuse, and potential causes (genetic and environmental). V. Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD): Treatment? ​ This final section addresses the challenges and complexities of treating ASPD, highlighting the low treatment-seeking rates, the lack of evidence for treatment effectiveness, and the pessimistic outlook regarding reducing recidivism.  Week 6 Navigating the Depths of Darkness and Light: A Guide to Understanding Personality Source 1: PERSONALITY PSYU/X2234 Lecture 8: Psychopathy 1. Introduction (Slides 3-9) This section introduces the concept of psychopathy, drawing on historical figures like Hervey Cleckley and his influential work, "The Mask of Sanity," which explored the deceptive nature of psychopaths. Key characteristics of psychopathy are defined, including predatory behaviour, emotional detachment, and impulsivity. The distinction between psychopathy and Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) is explored, highlighting primary and secondary psychopathy subtypes. Finally, the gold-standard assessment tool, the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), is introduced. 2. Psychopathy & Crime? (Slides 11-14) This section examines the complex relationship between psychopathy and criminal behaviour. While a significant proportion of the prison population exhibits psychopathic traits, the lecture argues that crime may not be a defining feature of psychopathy, citing examples of "successful" psychopaths in various fields. Research exploring the link between psychopathy, antisocial behaviour, and recidivism is presented, highlighting the predictive power of the PCL-R. 3. Psychopathy: Causes? (Slides 15-22) This section delves into the potential causes of psychopathy, differentiating between primary and secondary subtypes. Secondary psychopathy is linked to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), while primary psychopathy is considered a neurodevelopmental disorder with potential genetic roots. Evidence for amygdala dysfunction and its role in reduced emotional experience, particularly fear and empathy, is presented. The concept of "fearless dominance" is explored, and research illustrating the physiological responses of psychopaths to threatening stimuli is discussed. Finally, the lecture examines the nature of "cold-blooded" crimes, highlighting the instrumental aggression often displayed by psychopaths. 4. Psychopathy: Treatment? (Slides 23-25) The final section tackles the challenging question of treating psychopathy. Concerns are raised regarding the potential for traditional therapies to worsen psychopathic traits, citing studies on increased aggression and therapy disruptions. While mixed findings exist, the lecture emphasizes the lack of conclusive evidence for successful treatment outcomes. Despite the challenges, research on cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) in secure settings suggests potential for managing aggression in some individuals with psychopathy. Source 2: PERSONALITY PSYU/X2234 Lecture 9: The Dark Triad & the Dark Tetrad 1. Introduction (Slides 3-11) This section introduces the Dark Triad, a personality constellation encompassing Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy. Each trait is defined and elaborated upon, emphasising their shared characteristics of self-promotion, emotional coldness, and manipulative tendencies. The lecture investigates the intercorrelations between the Dark Triad traits, concluding that while significant overlap exists, they should not be considered equivalent. 2. The Dark Tetrad (D4) (Slides 19-23) The concept of the Dark Tetrad is introduced, incorporating Everyday Sadism as a potential fourth dimension. The lecture presents research exploring the link between sadism and the Dark Triad, highlighting the distinct nature of sadism. Behavioural studies demonstrate that individuals high in sadism derive pleasure from inflicting pain and suffering, a finding not consistently observed in individuals with other Dark Triad traits. 3. Is There a Light Triad? (Slides 24-28) This section explores the potential for a Light Triad, a personality constellation characterised by positive traits that contrast with the Dark Triad. The development of the Light Triad scale is discussed, outlining its three core components: Kantianism (treating people as ends), Humanism (valuing individual worth), and Faith in Humanity (believing in inherent goodness). The lecture concludes by comparing the Light and Dark Triad scores, suggesting that individuals generally lean more towards the Light Triad, highlighting the potential for positive aspects of human nature.  Week 7 Exploring Personality, Well-being, and Assessment: A Detailed Table of Contents Source 1: PERSONALITY PSYU/X2234 Lecture 10: Personality & Wellbeing by A/Prof Simon Boag I. Introduction ​ 1.1 Humanistic and Positive Psychology: Introduces humanistic psychology as the "third force" alongside psychoanalysis and behaviourism, focusing on human potential and experiences. Contrasts this with positive psychology's scientific approach to studying strengths and well-being. ​ 1.2 Types of Wellbeing: Discusses the hedonic approach, centred on pleasure and happiness, and the eudaimonic approach, focusing on meaning, fulfilment, and human flourishing. Explores the concept of subjective well being (SWB) as a measure of life satisfaction and positive/negative affect. II. Self-Determination Theory ​ ​ 2.1 Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation: Critiques classical motivation theory based on external rewards and punishment, contrasting it with self-determination theory's emphasis on intrinsic motivation, driven by inherent satisfaction, interest, and core values. ​ ​ 2.2 Psychological Needs & Mental Health: Outlines the three basic psychological needs (belongingness, competence, and autonomy) as essential for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. Examines the universality of these needs across cultures and their relationship to subjective well-being. ​ ​ 2.3 Wellbeing, Motivation & Performance: Explores the application of self-determination theory in various fields, highlighting the link between intrinsic motivation and quality of performance, while extrinsic motivation predicts quantity of performance. Presents findings from meta-analyses supporting the theory's propositions and applications in education, organisational behaviour, healthcare, and exercise motivation. III. Other Personality Variables & Subjective Wellbeing 3.1 The Five-Factor Model & Repressive Defensiveness: Presents findings from a meta-analysis on personality traits and subjective well-being, emphasising the role of neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, trust, emotional stability, and repressive defensiveness. 3.2 Repressive Defensiveness and Mixed Findings:** Addresses the conflicting research on repressive defensiveness and subjective well-being, proposing the need to consider short-term vs. long-term effects, denial of negative emotions, and potential lasting negative consequences on mental and physical health. Source 2: PERSONALITY PSYU/X2234 Lecture 11: Personality Assessment & Theory by A/Prof Simon Boag I. Introduction 1.1 The Importance of Assessment:** Explains the rationale behind personality assessment in organisational, forensic, and clinical psychology. Introduces the fundamental concepts of reliability and validity as crucial elements of good assessment tools. 1.2 The Role of Theory:** Emphasises the importance of a theoretical framework for understanding personality when choosing assessment methods, highlighting the diversity of personality constructs and approaches. II. McAdams's Personality Triad ​ 2.1 Three Levels of Personality: Presents McAdams's hierarchical model of personality, encompassing dispositional traits, characteristic adaptations, and narrative identity as a life story, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of individuals beyond just traits. ​ 2.2 Self-Report Inventories: Focuses on self-report inventories as the most common method for assessing personality traits, particularly the Five-Factor Model (OCEAN). Discusses the advantages and limitations of such inventories, including issues of bias, faking, memory errors, and test coaching. Explores different response formats (e.g., yes/no, Likert scales, forced-choice) and their impact on social desirability and acquiescence. ​ 2.3 Performance-Based Assessment: Introduces performance-based assessment, such as projective tests (e.g., Rorschach inkblot, Thematic Apperception Test), as indirect measures that rely on inference and interpretation. Discusses their potential for assessing unconscious processes while acknowledging challenges related to reliability, validity, and scoring complexity. ​ 2.4 Interviews: Examines the role of interviews, particularly those aligned with a humanistic approach, as a method to gain in-depth, qualitative information about an individual's personality. Differentiates between structured, unstructured, and semi-structured interviews and discusses their advantages and disadvantages, including interviewer effects and time-consuming analysis. Highlights the potential for exploring personality in-depth through McAdams's Life Story interview, focusing on key life events and narratives. III. Future Directions and Further Issues in Personality Assessment ​ 3.1 New Approaches: Discuss emerging trends in personality assessment, such as personality and situation assessment, mixed-methods approaches combining quantitative and qualitative data, and the use of Big Data analysis for understanding personality. ​ 3.2 Cultural Considerations: Emphasises the importance of considering cultural factors in personality assessment, particularly in an increasingly globalised and diverse world. Raises the issue of potential cultural bias in existing measures and the need for culturally appropriate assessment tools.  Week 8 Understanding the Social Self: A Deep Dive into Personality, Perception, and Self-Esteem Source 1: PSY2234 Social & Personality Psychology Lecture Notes - Associate Professor Trevor Case I. The Social Self vs. Personality ​ This section explores the distinction between personality, defined as stable intrinsic characteristics, and the social self, shaped by social interactions and contexts. ​ It introduces the concept of the social self as a fluid entity encompassing self-concept and self-esteem. II. The Spotlight Effect and Illusion of Transparency ​ This section examines the spotlight effect, our tendency to overestimate how much others notice us, particularly in embarrassing situations. ​ It also discusses the illusion of transparency, the belief that others can easily read our hidden emotions. III. Self-Schema ​ This section defines self-schemas as organised knowledge structures representing our beliefs and feelings about ourselves, influencing how we perceive and interact with the world. ​ It highlights the self-reference effect, demonstrating that we process and remember self-relevant information more efficiently. IV. Origins of the Sense of Self ​ This section explores the development of the self through the lens of others, emphasising family, social comparisons, and group memberships. ​ It introduces the concepts of the looking-glass self, reflected self-appraisal, and social identity theory. V. Accuracy of Self-Knowledge ​ This section challenges the assumption of accurate self-knowledge by revealing our limitations in explaining our behaviour, predicting future actions and emotions, and objectively assessing our abilities. ​ It explores the impact bias and the power of the psychological immune system in influencing our affective forecasting. VI. Self-Esteem ​ This section defines self-esteem as our overall evaluation of ourselves, typically high due to self-enhancing attributions. ​ It introduces the sociometer hypothesis, proposing that self-esteem reflects our social acceptance and motivates relationship repair when low. VII. Self-Serving Bias and Self-Enhancement ​ This section explores the various ways we protect and boost our self-esteem through attributional distortions, such as taking credit for success and blaming others for failure. ​ It examines the potential benefits and downsides of high self-esteem, noting the possibility of increased arrogance and unfriendliness. VIII. Conclusions ​ This section summarises the key points covered in the lecture, emphasising the importance of the social self for social cohesion and cooperation despite its inherent flaws and biases. Source 2: PSYU/X2234 Personality Lecture Notes - A/Prof Simon Boag I. Introduction: Categorical vs. Dimensional Approaches to Personality Disorder Diagnosis ​ This section introduces the topic of personality disorders and the two dominant approaches to their diagnosis: the categorical model, as reflected in the DSM-5, and the dimensional model, represented by the Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD). ​ It acknowledges the historical dissatisfaction with existing conceptualizations and diagnostic methods. II. Case Study: Lia ​ This section presents a fictional case study of Lia, a 28-year-old woman exhibiting various problematic behaviours and emotional patterns. ​ This case study serves as a basis for applying both the categorical and dimensional approaches to diagnosis. III. Diagnosis with the Categorical Model ​ This section applies the DSM-5 criteria to diagnose Lia, suggesting potential personality disorders that might fit her case, such as Borderline Personality Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder. ​ It highlights the strengths and weaknesses of the categorical approach, considering its simplicity, familiarity, and potential for over-simplification and stigmatisation. IV. Clinical Implications of the Categorical Model ​ This section briefly discusses potential treatment approaches for Borderline Personality Disorder and acknowledges the common belief that Antisocial Personality Disorder is untreatable. V. Diagnosing with the AMPD ​ This section introduces the two main criteria of the AMPD: Criterion A, assessing levels of Personality Functioning across domains like self-direction, identity, empathy, and intimacy, and Criterion B, evaluating pathological personality traits. ​ It explains the assessment methods and levels of impairment used in Criterion A and provides an overview of the pathological personality traits considered in Criterion B. VI. Applying the AMPD to Lia's Case ​ This section systematically assesses Lia's functioning across the four domains of Criterion A and evaluates the presence of various pathological traits from Criterion B based on the case study information. VII. Strengths and Weaknesses of the AMPD ​ This section analyses the advantages and disadvantages of the alternative model, considering its nuanced descriptions, individualised treatment potential, complexity, and lack of established clinical guidelines. VIII. Concluding Remarks and Exam Guidance ​ This section provides brief concluding remarks and offers guidance for exam preparation, encouraging students to focus on major theories, concepts, and research findings in the field of personality.  Week 9 Understanding Social Perception and the Self: A Table of Contents Source 1: PSY2234 Social & Personality Psychology Lecture Notes (Excerpts) I. Attribution a. Introduction to Attribution: Explores the concept of attribution, its importance in understanding behaviour, and Heider's naive scientist approach. b. Attribution Theories: - Naive Scientist (Heider, 1958): Discusses the three principles of this theory and how individuals act as naive scientists to understand their world. - Correspondent Inference (Jones & Davis, 1965): Explains how people infer stable personality traits from observed behaviours and the factors that affect these inferences. - Covariation Model (Kelly, 1967): Introduces Kelly's model, which considers multiple observations and factors to understand both internal and external attributions. - Attributional Style Questionnaire (Peterson et al., 1982): Explores this clinical instrument used to identify attributional styles, particularly those associated with depression. II. Biases in Attribution a. The Fundamental Attribution Error: Examines the tendency to overemphasise internal attributions for others' behaviour, using the Quiz Game and Castro Speech studies as examples. b. Actor-Observer Effect: Explains the tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external factors while attributing others' behaviour to internal factors. c. Why Attributional Biases Occur: Discusses motivational factors, perceptual salience, informational differences, and cultural influences that contribute to these biases. d. Implications of Attributional Biases: Explores the impact of these biases on judgments of success, victim blaming, and the just-world hypothesis. III. The Social Self (Continued from a Previous Lecture) a. Self-Esteem and Self-Serving Bias: Focuses on the role of attributional distortions in protecting and enhancing self-esteem, including the self-serving bias and the better-than-average effect. b. "Dark Side" of Self-Esteem: Discusses potential negative consequences of high self-esteem, drawing on Heatherton & Vohs' (2000) research. c. Conclusions: Summarises key takeaways about the social self, self-knowledge, self-esteem, and their impact on social interactions. Source 2: PSY2234 Social & Personality Psychology Lecture Notes (Excerpts) I. Forming Impressions a. First Impressions: Introduces the immediacy and importance of forming impressions, using examples like meeting new people and job interviews. b. Speed-Dating Studies: Explores research on impression formation in speed-dating contexts, revealing gender differences in preferences and the accuracy of first impressions. c. Thin Slices: Discusses the concept of thin slices of behaviour and their surprising accuracy in predicting judgments based on longer exposure, referencing studies on teacher evaluations and leadership perception. d. Accuracy of First Impressions: Examines the accuracy of snap judgments, noting both their potential validity and the influence of assumptions, biases, and stereotypes. II. Filling in the Blanks a. Implicit Personality Theories: Explains how individuals use informal theories to make inferences about others' personalities and "fill in the blanks" based on limited information. b. Babyish Faces and Gullibility: Discusses how babyish facial features influence perceptions of traits like weakness, naivety, and gullibility, citing research on legal judgments and job suitability. c. Perceiving Gullibility: Explores research on the concept of gullibility, its facial features, and its connection to phishing susceptibility and trustworthiness judgments. III. Central & Peripheral Traits a. Gestalt Psychology and Impression Formation: Introduces Asch's (1946) work, linking impression formation to Gestalt principles of perception, emphasising that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. b. Central and Peripheral Traits (Asch, 1946): Explains Asch's research on the influence of central traits (e.g., warm/cold) versus peripheral traits (e.g., polite/blunt) on overall impressions. IV. Biases in Forming Impressions a. Primacy vs. Recency (Asch, 1946): Discusses the impact of information order on impressions, highlighting how early information shapes the interpretation of subsequent information. b. Bad is Stronger Than Good: Explores the phenomenon of negative information having a disproportionate impact on impressions compared to positive information. c. Physical Appearance: Examines the influence of physical attractiveness on judgments of personality, competence, and even legal outcomes. V. Cognitive Schemas a. Schemas as Mental Shortcuts: Introduces cognitive schemas as organised expectations that help individuals interpret new information efficiently, acting as mental shortcuts. b. Schemas and Inaccuracy: Discusses the potential downsides of schemas, particularly their tendency to lead to errors and biassed interpretations. VI. Schemas about Groups a. Stereotypes: Defines stereotypes as widely held schemas about social groups, acknowledging their potential for both positive and negative bias. b. Stereotypes and In-Group Favouritism (Social Identity Theory): Explains social identity theory's concept of in-group favouritism and its role in exaggerating differences between in-groups and out-groups. c. Robbers Cave Experiment (Sherif, 1966): Describes this classic study demonstrating how intergroup competition fosters hostility and how superordinate goals can reduce conflict. d. Stereotypes and Rumor Transmission (Allport & Postman, 1947): Examines a study on rumor transmission, showing how stereotypes can bias information recall and contribute to the spread of misinformation.  Week 10 Emotion in Social and Personality Psychology: A Detailed Overview Source: Excerpts from "Case Emotion 2024.pdf" by Associate Professor Trevor Case, PSY2234 Social & Personality Psychology: Emotion I. Introduction: The Power of Emotions This section introduces the significance of emotions in human experience, arguing that they provide colour, meaning, and motivation to our lives, drawing on a powerful quote by William James. It positions the study of emotions within the broader context of motivation and behaviour, highlighting the complex relationship between them. II. Defining Emotions This section explores the challenge of defining emotions, acknowledging the lack of a single, universally accepted definition and the existence of various mini-theories. It presents a working definition of emotion, emphasising its characteristics as brief, specific, and goal-oriented responses, contrasting it with the concept of mood. III. Characteristics of Emotions This section elaborates on the defining characteristics of emotions, highlighting their brief duration, specific nature, and motivational power. It discusses how emotions, unlike moods, are tied to particular people and events and drive goal-directed behaviours that navigate the social environment. IV. The Social Function of Emotions This section delves into the adaptive function of emotions in social interactions, demonstrating how emotions like gratitude, anger, guilt, and awe serve to maintain social bonds, punish transgressions, and connect individuals to a larger group. It emphasises the profoundly social nature of emotions. V. Components of Emotions This section dissects the three core components of emotions: physiological responses, cognitive processes, and expressive behaviour. It explains the role of the autonomic nervous system in generating physiological responses, the influence of language and feelings as information on cognitive processes, and the diverse ways emotions are expressed through facial expressions, voice, posture, touch, and even art. It also introduces the concept of the Duchenne smile as a genuine expression of happiness. VI. Approaches to Emotion: Darwin's Evolutionary Perspective This section examines Darwin's evolutionary perspective on emotions, focusing on the adaptive functions of emotional expressions and the continuity of emotions between animals and humans. It discusses Darwin's key assumptions, including the universality and innateness of emotional expressions, and examines evidence supporting these claims, such as Ekman's research on basic emotions and studies on animal facial expressions. VII. Approaches to Emotion: The James-Lange Theory This section introduces the James-Lange theory of emotion, a psychophysiological approach that emphasises the primacy of visceral and bodily reactions in the experience of emotion. It explains the theory's counterintuitive sequence of events, where physiological responses precede the subjective feeling of emotion, and discusses the role of introspection in shaping James's view. VIII. Approaches to Emotion: Cannon-Bard's Critique and Central Theories This section presents Cannon-Bard's criticisms of the James-Lange theory, focusing on the lack of specificity in physiological responses and the role of the brain in emotional experience. It introduces the concept of "central" theories of emotion, which emphasise the central nervous system's role in emotion generation, contrasting them with "peripheral" theories like James-Lange. IX. Approaches to Emotion: Facial Feedback and the Two-Factor Theory This section examines two influential theories: the facial feedback hypothesis and Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory of emotion. The facial feedback hypothesis, a peripheral theory, suggests that facial expressions can influence emotional experience. The two-factor theory proposes that emotions arise from both undifferentiated physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal, highlighting the role of situational context in shaping emotional experience. X. Increasing Happiness This section shifts focus to practical applications of emotion research, exploring strategies for increasing happiness. It discusses the importance of social connections, gratitude practices, experiential purchases, and acts of sharing, giving, and volunteering in promoting well-being. XI. Conclusion This section summarises the key takeaways from the lecture and readings, emphasising the multifaceted nature of emotions, the contributions of various theoretical perspectives, and the practical implications of understanding emotions for personal and social well-being.  Week 10 Part 2 A Deep Dive into Errors and Biases in Social Inference Source 1: Excerpts from "Case Errors Biases 2024.pdf" I. Introduction: Questioning our Intuition This section poses thought-provoking questions about common beliefs, such as the increased likelihood of conception after adoption and the influence of the full moon on childbirth, prompting us to consider the accuracy of our intuitive judgments. II. Social Inference: Rationality vs. Reality ​ A. Rational Model: This subsection introduces the ideal process of social inference, involving observation, pattern detection, causal inference, and prediction, highlighting a systematic and analytical approach. ​ B. Everyday Inference: Contrasting the rational model, this section explores the role of intuition in social judgments, recognizing its efficiency but also acknowledging its susceptibility to biases and inaccuracies. III. The Power of Beliefs and Theories ​ A. Belief Perseverance: This subsection delves into the phenomenon of clinging to existing beliefs even when confronted with contradictory evidence, emphasising the difficulty of changing ingrained perceptions. ​ B. Confirmation Bias: Further exploring belief-driven thinking, this section examines our tendency to seek out information that supports pre-existing beliefs while disregarding contradictory information, leading to flawed conclusions. IV. The Illusion of Patterns and Relationships This section utilises the example of conception after adoption to demonstrate how incomplete data can mislead us into perceiving relationships where none exist, emphasising the need for comprehensive information when making judgments. V. Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts with Consequences ​ A. Introduction to Heuristics: This subsection defines heuristics as time-saving mental shortcuts that simplify complex judgments, acknowledging their efficiency but also highlighting their potential to introduce errors. ​ B. Representativeness Heuristic: Examining the tendency to categorise individuals based on perceived similarity to a typical member of that category, this section illustrates how ignoring base-rate information can lead to flawed judgments, using examples like the engineer/lawyer scenario and coin flip sequences. ​ C. Conjunction Fallacy: This subsection explores the error of judging the likelihood of two events occurring together as higher than the probability of either event happening alone, exemplified by the "Linda problem." ​ D. Availability Heuristic: This section delves into the tendency to assess the likelihood of events based on the ease with which examples come to mind, highlighting how media portrayals can distort our perceptions of frequency, such as with causes of death. ​ E. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic: This subsection explores the influence of irrelevant starting values on our quantitative judgments, illustrated by the "thinking the unthinkable" experiment regarding the likelihood of nuclear war. VI. Other Judgmental Shortcomings  ​ A. Illusion of Control: This section examines our tendency to perceive control over chance events, attributing it to factors like personal choice and familiarity, demonstrated by the lottery ticket experiment. ​ B. Regression to the Mean: This subsection explains the statistical phenomenon of extreme observations being followed by more moderate ones, emphasising how we often misinterpret this natural fluctuation and attribute it to external factors, like ineffective therapies. VII. Conclusion: Recognizing and Mitigating Biases This section concludes by acknowledging the usefulness of intuition while recognizing its limitations, advocating for rational and scientific thinking to mitigate the impact of biases, ultimately acknowledging the persistent nature of these errors despite our best efforts.  Week 11 - Part 1 Group Influence: A Deep Dive into Social Facilitation and Loafing Source: Excerpts from "Case Group influence (1) 2024.pdf" by Associate Professor Trevor Case I. Defining Groups ​ This section defines groups as collections of two or more individuals who interact, influence each other, and share a sense of belonging. ​ It discusses the evolutionary advantages of group living, such as protection, resource acquisition, and childcare support, while acknowledging potential drawbacks in certain contexts. II. The Power of Presence: Early Observations ​ This section introduces the concept of social facilitation through the work of Norman Triplett. ​ It highlights his observation of cyclists performing better in the presence of others and the subsequent controlled experiments confirming that the presence of others enhances performance on simple tasks. III. Unveiling Social Facilitation: Zajonc's Theory ​ This section delves into Robert Zajonc's explanation of social facilitation. ​ It posits that the presence of others increases arousal, leading to the enhancement of dominant responses. This means simple tasks benefit from heightened arousal, while complex tasks suffer. ​ The concept is illustrated through studies on cockroaches navigating mazes, showcasing the influence of arousal on performance. IV. Exploring the Drivers of Arousal ​ This section dissects two potential sources of arousal in the presence of others: mere presence and evaluation apprehension. ​ It examines studies that support both explanations, suggesting that being around others, especially strangers, inherently increases alertness and motivation. ​ Additionally, the fear of being judged negatively by others, particularly in larger or higher-status audiences, contributes to heightened arousal. V. Stereotype Threat: A Facilitating Force? ​ This section introduces the concept of stereotype threat, where individuals fear confirming negative stereotypes about their group, leading to anxiety and potentially impacting performance. ​ It connects stereotype threat to social facilitation, suggesting that the anxiety induced by stereotype threat can act as a source of arousal, influencing performance based on task complexity. ​ Studies by Ben-Zeev et al. are discussed, demonstrating that stereotype threat can facilitate performance on well-learned tasks but hinder performance on novel tasks. VI. From Facilitation to Loafing: Exploring Group Work Dynamics ​ This section transitions from the individual performance focus of social facilitation to examine how performance changes when individuals work together towards a shared goal. ​ Early research by Ringlemann is introduced, showing that individual effort decreases as group size increases, a phenomenon initially attributed to coordination losses. VII. Social Loafing: Diffusion of Responsibility  ​ This section introduces the concept of social loafing, building upon Ringlemann's observations. ​ It cites Ingham et al.'s study demonstrating that individuals exert less effort when they believe they are part of a group, even if they are actually working alone. ​ Latané et al.'s work is introduced, further supporting social loafing through a study where participants clapped and yelled less loudly when they believed they were part of a group. VIII. Social Impact Theory: Understanding Loafing ​ This section presents Latané's social impact theory as an explanation for social loafing. ​ It suggests that social pressure to contribute is divided among group members, leading to reduced individual responsibility and effort as group size increases. ​ The section concludes by emphasising the importance of identifiability in mitigating social loafing, illustrated through studies on swimming relays. Week 11 - Part 2 Exploring Disgust: An In-Depth Look at its Characteristics and Functions Source 1: Excerpts from "Case Disgust 2024.pdf" I. Increasing Happiness ​ Social Connections: This section highlights the importance of social connections for well-being, emphasising the negative impacts of social isolation. It draws on the work of Baumeister & Leary (1995) to support the claim. ​ Gratitude: Summarises a study by Boehm et al. (2011) demonstrating the long-term positive effects of practising gratitude on life satisfaction. ​ Experiential Purchases: Contrasts the impact of experiential purchases (e.g., holidays) with material purchases (e.g., a new TV) on well-being, arguing that experiences contribute more to long-term happiness. It references Carter & Gilovich (2010) and explores the reasons behind this phenomenon. ​ Sharing and Giving: Explores the positive impact of generosity and volunteering on happiness, summarising a study by Aknin et al. (2013) that demonstrates the mood-boosting effects of giving to others. II. Conclusions (Emotions and Happiness) ​ The Nature of Emotions: This section provides a concise overview of the key characteristics of emotions, highlighting their physiological, cognitive, and expressive components, and their influence on social interactions and decision-making. ​ Theories and Perspectives: Briefly acknowledges the diversity of theoretical perspectives on emotions, emphasising the complexity of the subject. ​ Emotions, Motivation, and Well-being: Concludes by emphasising the significance of understanding emotions for improving personal happiness and social interactions. III. Content Warning ​ Disgust Elicitors: Warns readers about the frequent references to disgust elicitors and the use of potentially disturbing images in the subsequent sections. IV. Disgust in Social & Personality Psychology ​ Characteristics of Disgust: Introduces the concept of disgust, providing a definition and outlining key characteristics. ​ Disgust and Disease Avoidance: Explores the evolutionary perspective that disgust functions as a disease-avoidance mechanism, citing relevant research. This section includes: ​ The Source Effect: Focuses on the role of source familiarity in disgust responses, highlighting the increased disgust elicited by unfamiliar sources. ​ Challenges to the Disease Avoidance Account: Presents four key challenges to the disease-avoidance theory of disgust: the role of sex, the late emergence of disgust, moral disgust, and the presence of disgust in animals. V. Lecture Outline and Suggested Readings * Provides a brief overview of the lecture's structure and suggests further readings, including works by Case & Stevenson (2024) and Oaten, Stevenson, & Case (2009). VI. Characteristics of Disgust: Revulsion and Oral Incorporation ​ Darwinian Perspective: Introduces Darwin's (1872) early observations on disgust, emphasising the characteristic facial expression of revulsion. ​ Definition and Contamination: Defines disgust as revulsion at the prospect of oral incorporation of offensive objects (Rozin & Fallon, 1987), highlighting the role of contamination in disgust responses. This section also discusses the late emergence of disgust in children (4-7 years) as potentially related to the cognitive complexity of understanding contamination. VII. Characteristics of Disgust: Distaste vs. Disgust ​ Rozin's Distinction: Explores the distinction between distaste and disgust proposed by Rozin (2015), arguing that animals, feral humans, and newborns exhibit distaste but not disgust. ​ Evidence for Distinction: Presents evidence from Steiner et al. (2001) and Berridge (2000) showing similar physiological responses (gapes, forearm flails, headshakes) to bitter tastes in newborns and other mammals, suggesting that these responses reflect distaste rather than disgust. VIII. Characteristics of Disgust: Enculturation and Expansion ​ The Role of Enculturation: Argues that the absence of gape elicitors (other than bad tastes) in infants, animals, and feral humans suggests that disgust requires enculturation. ​ From Distaste to Abstract Emotion: Traces the evolution of disgust from a basic rejection response to bad tastes to a more abstract, ideational emotion encompassing concepts like moral disgust and religious food taboos. ​ Domains of Disgust Elicitors: Presents Rozin's nine domains of disgust elicitors (Haidt, McCauley, & Rozin, 1994), categorised into core disgust, animal-nature disgust, and sociomoral disgust. IX. Characteristics of Disgust: Measurement and Individual Differences ​ Disgust Scale: Introduces the Disgust Scale developed by Haidt, McCauley, & Rozin (1994), covering seven domains plus magic and excluding moral disgust. Provides examples of items from the scale.  ​ Three-Domain Disgust Scale: Describes the Three-Domain Disgust Scale by Tybur et al. (2009), focusing on pathogens, sexuality, and morality. Provides examples of items. ​ Gender Differences: Notes the robust gender differences observed in disgust sensitivity using both measures. ​ Validity Concerns: Raises concerns about the limited validity of the moral disgust subscale (Olatunji et al., 2012). ​ Correlates of Disgust Sensitivity: Discusses the correlations between disgust sensitivity and various factors, including perceived vulnerability to disease, neuroticism, political conservatism, and sensation seeking. X. Characteristics of Disgust: Sympathetic Magic ​ Frazer's Principles: Explains the concept of sympathetic magic as described by Frazer (1890), including the principles of similarity (image equals object) and contagion (once in contact, always in contact). ​ Irrationality and Overgeneralization: Highlights the impervious nature of sympathetic magic to rational argument and its tendency towards overgeneralization as an adaptive strategy to prioritise avoiding false negatives (i.e., failing to identify a true threat). XI. Characteristics of Disgust: Animal Origins and Soul Protection ​ Rozin's Unifying Theme: Presents Rozin's theory that the common thread among disgust domains is the reminder of our animal origins. ​ Expanded Function: Proposes that the function of disgust has expanded from protecting the body from harm to protecting the soul from harm (Rozin et al., 2000). XII. The Function of Disgust: Disease Avoidance ​ Multiple Biological Defences: Describes the multiple layers of biological defences humans have evolved against parasitic attackers, including physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms within the gut (Curtis & Biran, 2001). ​ Behavioural Adaptation: Argues that disgust functions as a behavioural adaptation that motivates aversion to potential pathogens and contaminants, including anything that resembles them. XIII. Disgust as a Disease-Avoidance Mechanism ​ Pathogen Avoidance in Animals: Provides examples of documented behavioural adaptations to pathogens and parasites in various animal species (e.g., Hart, 1990), demonstrating the prevalence of pathogen avoidance behaviours. XIV. Disgust & Disease Avoidance: Supporting Evidence ​ Curtis & Biran (2001): Summarises research by Curtis & Biran (2001) linking disgust elicitors to routes of transmission for infectious diseases. ​ Curtin et al. (2004): Describes a study by Curtin et al. (2004) showing that images of objects associated with disease risk are rated as more disgusting than similar objects without disease relevance. XV. Disgust & Disease Avoidance: Source Effect Research * **Case, Repacholi, & Stevenson (2006)**: Presents a study investigating whether mothers modulate their disgust to their own infants' faeces compared to other infants' faeces. The study explored the role of exposure and labelling in explaining potential differences in disgust responses. XVI. Challenges to the Disease-Avoidance Account ​ Sex: Acknowledges the challenge posed by sexual behaviour, which involves intimate contact with basic disgust elicitors. ​ Late Emergence: Discusses the puzzle of the relatively late emergence of disgust in children, questioning whether disgust is learned or requires cognitive sophistication. ​ Moral Disgust: Raises the issue of moral disgust, which is elicited by immoral acts that do not pose a disease threat. ​ Disgust in Animals: Explores the question of whether disgust exists in animals and whether there is evidence of continuity between animal and human disgust. XVII. Sexual Arousal and Disgust ​ Stevenson, Case, & Oaten (2011): Describes a study investigating the impact of sexual arousal on disgust responses to sex-related and non-sex-related disgust elicitors. The findings suggest that sexual arousal selectively reduces disgust to sex-related elicitors. XVIII. Late Emergence of Disgust: Children's Responses ​ Stevenson, Oaten, Case, Repacholi, & Wagland (2010): Summarises a study investigating the age at which children develop disgust responses to different types of elicitors. The research also explores the relationship between disgust and understanding contamination, as well as the role of parental influence. XIX. Moral Disgust: A Separate Phenomenon? ​ Social Pathogens: Discusses the possibility that moral disgust represents avoidance of social pathogens (Curtis & Biran, 2001). ​ Link to Harsh Moral Judgments: Reviews research showing a link between experimentally induced disgust and harsher moral judgments (e.g., Wheatley & Haidt, 2005). ​ Neuroimaging Evidence: Mentions neuroimaging studies suggesting a connection between pathogen disgust and moral disgust, specifically involving the gustatory processing area of the brain. ​ Criticisms and Alternative Explanation: Presents criticisms of the moral disgust concept, highlighting the low correlation between moral disgust and other disgust domains, the distinct characteristics of moral disgust compared to core disgust, and methodological concerns in existing research. Proposes that expressions of disgust towards immoral acts might be metaphorical expressions of moral outrage. XX. Disgust in Animals: Evidence and Limitations * **Case, Stevenson, Byrne & Hobaiter (2020):** Summarises a study using observations and questionnaires to assess disgust responses in great apes. The findings suggest that apes exhibit aversion to some core disgust elicitors but show limited or muted disgust responses compared to humans. XXI. Heightened Disgust in Humans: Possible Explanations * **Capacity for Imagination**: Proposes that humans' unique capacity to imagine contamination might contribute to heightened disgust. * **Carnivory in Human Ancestors**: Hypotheses that the reliance on carnivory in the diet of Homo ancestors may have selected for heightened disgust towards contaminated meat. * **Agriculture and Population Density**: Argues that the rise of agriculture and increased population density led to greater exposure to contagious diseases, potentially intensifying disgust responses as a protective mechanism. * **Western Culture of Cleanliness**: Suggests that the modern Western emphasis on cleanliness and reduced exposure to disgust elicitors might have further amplified disgust sensitivity. * **Cultural Variations**: Acknowledges the cultural variability in disgust responses, citing examples like oysters and pungent cheeses. XXII. Conclusions: Unanswered Questions and Applications * **Unmapped Territory**: Emphasises the need for further research to address the remaining challenges to the disease-avoidance account, particularly regarding sex, late development, moral disgust, and disgust in animals. * **Applied Implications**: Highlights the potential applications of disgust research in understanding and addressing phobias, stigmatisation, and hygiene behaviours.  Week 12 - 2234 Exploring Adolescence and Young Adulthood: A Detailed Table of Contents I. Setting the Stage: Historical and Demographic Context of Adolescence ​ Adolescents in Australia: This section introduces the current demographics of adolescents in Australia, highlighting their declining proportion of the population with recent upticks in the 10-14 age group. (1-2 paragraphs) ​ Shaping Adolescence: Historical Influences: This part delves into how historical shifts, like changes in the labour market, education systems, child labour laws, and technological advancements, have shaped the experience of adolescence. (2 paragraphs) ​ The Educational Impact: Examines the role of secondary education in segregating childhood from adulthood, fostering peer interactions, and potentially extending adolescence due to longer educational pursuits. (2-3 paragraphs) II. A Bio-Psycho-Social Transition: Understanding the Multifaceted Nature of Adolescence ​ Puberty: A Biological Transformation: Explains puberty, encompassing hormonal changes, secondary sex characteristics, and the variable timing of onset for both genders, emphasising its significance as a bio-psycho-social transition. (2-3 paragraphs) ​ The Developing Brain: Neural Underpinnings of Adolescent Behavior: This section provides a detailed exploration of neural development during adolescence. (10-12 paragraphs) ​ Early Brain Development & Pruning: Discusses the critical development of the brain in the first three years, the extensive synaptic connections in early childhood, and the process of neural pruning during adolescence. ​ The Limbic System & Prefrontal Cortex: Explores the role of the limbic system in emotional responses and reward-seeking behaviour, contrasting it with the developing prefrontal cortex's functions in impulse control, planning, and emotional regulation. ​ Neurobiological Imbalance: Introduces the neurobiological imbalance model of adolescent brain development, highlighting the increased vulnerability to risky behaviours due to the gap between reward-seeking and control systems. ​ Implications of Neural Development: Discusses the implications of ongoing brain development for adolescents, including preferences for physical activity, variable judgement, and increased impulsivity and risk-taking. ​ Vulnerability and Environmental Influences: Emphasises the vulnerability of the adolescent brain to negative environmental influences, such as substance abuse and excessive screen time, while acknowledging the positive impact of enriching activities. ​ Physical Changes: Puberty and its Implications: Focuses on the physical changes during puberty, including variations in timing and their potential psychosocial consequences. (4-5 paragraphs) ​ Early and Late Puberty: Examines the challenges associated with both early and late puberty, particularly for girls, highlighting the risks of stress, social isolation, and potential mental health issues. ​ Trends in Puberty Onset: Discusses the trend of earlier puberty onset and explores possible contributing factors, such as genetics, obesity, diet, and environmental chemicals.  ​ Cognitive Capacities: From Concrete to Abstract Thinking: Examines the cognitive development of adolescents, focusing on Piaget's formal operational thought stage and its characteristics. (4 paragraphs) ​ Formal Operational Thought: Explains the development of more systematic, abstract, and deductive thinking, including the ability for hypothetico-deductive reasoning and mental manipulations. ​ Metacognition and Perspective-Taking: Explores the emergence of metacognition and its implications for humour, sarcasm, and understanding social nuances through perspective-taking. ​ Emotional Development: Navigating a Complex Emotional Landscape: Analyses the emotional development during adolescence, characterised by a broader range of emotions and challenges in regulation. (4-5 paragraphs) ​ Internalising and Externalizing Disorders: Discusses the emergence of internalising disorders (anorexia, bulimia, depression) and externalising disorders (delinquency, substance abuse) and the rising rates of mental health challenges in adolescents. ​ Adolescent Suicide: Addresses the concerning issue of adolescent suicide, highlighting its prevalence, gender disparities, and risk factors. III. Identity and Beyond: Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescent Development ​ Erik Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion: This section focuses on Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, specifically the stage of identity versus role confusion. (5 paragraphs) ​ The Central Question: Who am I?: Emphasises the central task of adolescence – the formation of a coherent sense of self and understanding one's place in the world. ​ Identity Formation: Discusses the complex and multifaceted nature of identity formation, acknowledging its variable pace, the challenges for minority groups, and the possibility of identity crises occurring later in life. ​ Moratorium and Exploration: Explains the concept of "moratorium" – the period of exploration and experimentation during adolescence, free from adult responsibilities, allowing for identity exploration. ​ Resolution and Potential Conflicts: Outlines the key areas of resolution (autonomy, gender identity, internalised morality, career choice) and the potential consequences of unresolved conflicts, including role confusion and various psychological difficulties. IV. The Transition to Adulthood: Emerging Adulthood and the Novice Phase ​ Defining Adulthood: A Shift in Markers: This section explores the evolving definitions of adulthood, challenging traditional markers and considering the emergence of "emerging adulthood" as a distinct developmental stage. (3 paragraphs) ​ Shifting Markers of Adulthood: Discusses the delay in traditional markers of adulthood, such as finishing education, financial independence, marriage, and parenthood, and the potential contributing factors. ​ Emerging Adulthood: A New Stage?: Introduces the concept of "emerging adulthood," highlighting its proposed characteristics: identity exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling "in-between," and a sense of possibilities and optimism. (2-3 paragraphs)  ​ The Novice Phase: Building a Stable Life Structure: Presents Daniel Levinson's theory of the "novice phase" in young adulthood, characterised by the tasks of establishing a career, forming intimate relationships, and developing a sense of purpose. (2-3 paragraphs) V. Young Adulthood: Physical, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Development ​ Brain Development: Reaching Maturity: Examines the completion of brain development in young adulthood, including the full maturation of the cortex and its implications for improved impulse control, emotional regulation, and higher-order cognitive functions. (2-3 paragraphs) ​ Physical Development: Peak Physical Condition: Discusses the attainment of peak physical condition in young adulthood and the importance of establishing healthy lifestyle patterns for long-term well-being. (2 paragraphs) ​ Health-Compromising Behaviours: Addresses the risks of health-compromising behaviours in young adulthood, including substance abuse (smoking, alcohol), risky sexual behaviour, and eating disorders. (3 paragraphs) ​ Sexuality: Attitudes and Behaviors: Explores the evolving attitudes and behaviors related to sexuality in young adulthood, noting changes in views on premarital sex, the diversity of sexual practices, and the increasing recognition of sexual fluidity. (2 paragraphs) ​ Cognitive Development: Beyond Formal Operations: Examines the possibility of cognitive development beyond Piaget's formal operations stage. (4-5 paragraphs) ​ Postformal Thought: Explores the concept of "postformal thought," characterised by the ability to integrate logic with intuition, embrace ambiguity, and synthesise contradictory information. ​ Schaie's Stages of Adult Thinking: Presents Schaie's stages of adult thinking, focusing on the "achieving stage" in young adulthood, where intelligence is directed towards specific goals and decision-making considers both context and consequences. ​ Perry and Belenky's Theories: Discusses Perry's concept of contextual relativism and Belenky's notion of constructed knowing, highlighting the development of more nuanced and contextual understandings of knowledge and truth. ​ Morality and Spirituality: Constructing Meaning: Examines the development of morality and spirituality in young adulthood, facilitated by postformal thought, leading to the formation of personal ethical frameworks and the search for meaning in life. (1-2 paragraphs) ​ Post-Secondary Education: Pathways to Knowledge and Careers: Analyses the trends in post-secondary education, including participation rates, degree attainment, and the underrepresentation of Indigenous Australians in higher education. (2 paragraphs) ​ Work: Early Career Stages: Discusses the early career stages as defined by Greenhaus, encompassing preparation for work, organisational entry, and the early career phase, where individuals focus on skill development, navigating workplace dynamics, and pursuing career aspirations. (2 paragraphs) ​ Psychosocial Development: Intimacy vs. Isolation: Explores Erikson's stage of intimacy versus isolation in young adulthood, emphasising the task of forming close, committed relationships while maintaining a sense of self. (4 paragraphs) ​ Defining Intimacy: Explains the concept of intimacy as the ability to experience open, supportive relationships without fear of losing one's identity. ​ Parallel Development and the Importance of Identity: Acknowledges that the crises of identity and intimacy may develop concurrently, with a stable sense of self being crucial for mature intimate relationships. ​ Factors Influencing Intimacy: Considers the role of brain development in emotional regulation and its impact on resolving the intimacy crisis, while recognizing the individual differences in the process. ​ Longitudinal Perspectives: Vaillant's Grant Study: Presents the findings of Vaillant's Grant Study, a long-term study on adult development, highlighting the significance of lifelong growth, sustained relationships, and the use of adaptive mechanisms for mental well-being. (4 paragraphs) ​ Friendship: Shifting Support Systems: Discusses the increasing importance of friendships in young adulthood as individuals transition from relying on family to seeking support and companionship from peers. (2 paragraphs) ​ Partners: Marriage and Cohabitation: Explores the different forms of partnerships in young adulthood, including traditional and egalitarian marriages, and the increasing age of marriage and divorce. (3 paragraphs) ​ Parenting: Challenges and Rewards: Examines the trends in parenting, including delayed childbearing, the impact on relationships, and the diversity of family structures, recognizing the challenges and profound rewards associated with raising children. (3 paragraphs) ​ A Final Note: Lifelong Growth and Change: Concludes by emphasising the dynamic nature of human development, acknowledging the ongoing growth and change that individuals experience throughout their lives, and recognizing young adulthood as a time of significant transitions and personal evolution. (1 paragraph)