Anatomy Test Review Guide PDF

Chapter 5 - The integumentary system includes the skin and accessory structures such as hair, glands, and nails. Functions of the Integumentary System 1. **Protection**: Shields against UV light, microorganisms, and prevents water loss. 2. **Sensation**: Contains sensory receptors for heat, cold,...

Chapter 5 - The integumentary system includes the skin and accessory structures such as hair, glands, and nails. Functions of the Integumentary System 1. **Protection**: Shields against UV light, microorganisms, and prevents water loss. 2. **Sensation**: Contains sensory receptors for heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain. 3. **Temperature Regulation**: Modulates blood flow through the skin and sweat gland activity. 4. **Vitamin D Production**: Synthesized from a molecule in the skin when exposed to UV light. 5. **Excretion**: Eliminates small amounts of waste products. Skin Structure - Epidermis: Superficial layer of stratified squamous epithelial tissue; avascular and nourished by diffusion. - Dermis: Deep layer of connective tissue providing structural strength; contains nerves, blood vessels, and glands. - Subcutaneous Tissue: Loose connective tissue connecting skin to underlying structures; contains adipose tissue. Epidermal Layers 1. Stratum Basale: Deepest layer with high mitotic activity; keratinocyte stem cells undergo mitosis. 2. Stratum Spinosum: Contains many-sided cells and Langerhans cells. 3. Stratum Granulosum: Contains keratohyalin granules; cells begin to die. 4. Stratum Lucidum: Clear zone of dead keratinocytes; found only in thick skin. 5. Stratum Corneum: Most superficial layer with dead, overlapping squamous cells. Accessory Structures - Hair: Composed of three layers (medulla, cortex, cuticle); grows in cycles. - Glands: - Sebaceous Glands: Produce sebum to prevent drying. - Sweat Glands: Eccrine glands regulate temperature; apocrine glands become active at puberty. - Nails: Composed of hard keratin; grow continuously. Physiology of the Integumentary System - Protection: Acts as a barrier against abrasion and microorganisms. - Sensation: Detects various stimuli. - Temperature Regulation: Involves sweating and blood flow modulation. - Vitamin D Production: Synthesized in the skin and aids calcium absorption. - Excretion: Minor role in waste removal compared to kidneys. Effects of Aging - Thinning of the epidermis, decreased collagen, and increased susceptibility to damage. Chapter 6 Skeletal System: Bones and Bone Tissue Introduction - The skeletal system is the framework that helps maintain the body's shape and enables us to move. - It is composed of bones, cartilage, and ligaments. Functions of the Skeletal System - Support: Bone is hard and rigid; cartilage is flexible yet strong. - Protection: Skull around brain; ribs, sternum, vertebrae protect organs of the thoracic cavity. - Movement: Produced by muscles attached to bones via tendons. - Storage: Calcium and phosphate stored and released as needed. Adipose tissue stored in marrow cavities. - Blood cell production: Bone marrow that gives rise to blood cells and platelets. Bone Markings - Bone markings (surface features) are projections where muscles, tendons, and ligaments attach, at articulations with other bones, and openings and depressions for passage of blood vessels and nerves. Bone Anatomy - Long Bone: - Diaphysis: Shaft; primarily compact bone surrounding the medullary cavity. - Medullary Cavity: In children, it contains red marrow for blood cell formation. In adults, red marrow is replaced by yellow in limb bones (except for proximal epiphyses of arm and thigh bones). - Epiphysis: End of the bone; primarily spongy bone covered with compact bone. - **Epiphyseal Plate**: Growth plate; hyaline cartilage present until growth stops. - Epiphyseal Line: Epiphyseal plate is ossified as bone stops growing in length. - Periosteum: Connective tissue membrane covering the outer surface of a bone. - Outer portion is dense irregular collagenous CT containing blood vessels and nerves. - Inner is a single layer of bone cells including osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells.  - Fibers of tendons and ligaments become continuous with fibers of periosteum. - Perforating fibers (Sharpey's fibers): some periosteal fibers penetrate through the periosteum and into the bone. - Endosteum: Single cellular layer of CT that lines all internal spaces including cavities in spongy bone and the medullary cavity. - Includes osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells. - Flat, Short, and Irregular Bones: - Flat Bones: No diaphyses, epiphyses. Sandwich of spongy between compact bone. - Short and Irregular Bones: Compact bone that surrounds spongy bone center; similar to the structure of epiphyses of long bones. No diaphyses and not elongated. Bone Histology - Bone Matrix: - Organic (35%): Collagen and proteoglycans. - Inorganic (65%): Hydroxyapatite. - Compact Bone: - Solid, outer layer surrounding each bone; has more matrix and is denser than spongy bone. - Osteon (Haversian System): -Functional unit of compact bone. - Composed of concentric rings of matrix around a central canal. - Osteocytes are sandwiched between the rings of the matrix and connected by canaliculi. - Central (Haversian) Canals: Parallel to the long axis. - Lamellae: Concentric, circumferential, interstitial. - Perforating (Volkmann's) Canals: Perpendicular to the long axis. - Both perforating and central canals contain blood vessels that run from the periosteum or medullary cavity to the osteocytes in their lacunae. - Spongy Bone: - **Trabeculae**: Interconnecting rods or plates of bone. - Spaces filled with marrow. - Covered with endosteum. - Oriented along stress lines. Bone Cells - **Osteoblasts**: Formation of bone through ossification or osteogenesis. Chapter 7 **Skeletal System Study Guide** Overview of the Skeletal System - The skeletal system serves multiple functions including: - **Protection** of vital organs. - **Mineral storage** (e.g., calcium and phosphorus). - **Support** for the body. - **Movement** facilitation through joints. - **Blood cell production** in bone marrow. Skeletal Anatomy - An average adult has **206 bones**, categorized into: - Axial Skeleton**: Includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. - Appendicular Skeleton: Comprises upper and lower limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles. Bone Classification - Bones are classified by shape: - Long Bone: e.g., femur. - Short Bones: e.g., carpals. - Flat Bones: e.g., skull bones. - Irregular Bones: e.g., vertebrae. Skeletal Terminology - Key terms include: - Body: Main part of the bone. - Head: Enlarged end. - Neck: Constriction between head and body. - Condyle: Smooth rounded articular surface. - Fossa: General term for a depression. Axial Skeleton - Comprises: - Skull: 22 bones including cranial and facial bones. - Vertebral Column: 26 bones, protects the spinal cord. - Thoracic Cage: 12 pairs of ribs and sternum. Bones of the Skull - Cranial Bones: Protect the brain (e.g., frontal, parietal, occipital). - Facial Bones: Support facial structure and sensory organs (e.g., maxilla, mandible). Vertebral Column - Composed of 26 vertebrae, divided into regions: - **Cervical (C1-C7)**: Supports head and neck. - **Thoracic (T1-T12)**: Supports ribs. - **Lumbar (L1-L5)**: Supports lower back. - **Sacral and Coccygeal**: Form the base. Intervertebral Disks - Located between vertebrae, providing support and preventing friction. Appendicular Skeleton - Includes: - Pectoral Girdle: Scapula and clavicle. - Upper Limbs: Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges. - Pelvic Girdle: Hip bones (ilium, ischium, pubis). Bones of the Lower Limb - Femur: Longest bone, articulates with the acetabulum. - Tibia and Fibula: Support body weight and form the ankle. Foot Structure - Composed of tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges. - Major arches (longitudinal and transverse) distribute body weight. Differences Between Male and Female Pelvises - Males have a heart-shaped pelvic inlet; females have a wider, oval-shaped inlet.