Anatomy and Physiology Notes PDF

Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1: The Human Body: Orientation Anatomy- Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts Levels of Study:  Gross anatomy  Large structures  Easily observable  Microscopic anatomy Protects and sup...

Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1: The Human Body: Orientation Anatomy- Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts Levels of Study:  Gross anatomy  Large structures  Easily observable  Microscopic anatomy Protects and supports body  Structures cannot be seen with the naked organs; provides a framework the eye muscles use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within  Structures can only be viewed with a bones; stores minerals. microscope  Muscular System Physiology- Study of how the body and its parts - Produces movement work or function - Maintains posture - Produces heat Organ System Overview  Integumentary System - Forms the external body covering - Protects deeper tissue from injury - Helps regulate body temperature - Location of cutaneous nerve receptors Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat.  Nervous System - Fast-acting control system - Responds to internal and external change Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; - Activates muscles and glands synthesizes vitamin D; location of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.  Skeletal System - Protects and supports body organs - Provides muscle attachment for movement - Site of blood cell formation - Stores minerals Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.  Endocrine System - Secretes regulatory hormones - Growth - Reproduction - Metabolism Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity. Glands secrete hormones that  Respiratory System regulate processes such as growth, - Keeps blood supplied with oxygen reproduction, and nutrient use by - Removes carbon dioxide body cells.  Cardiovascular System - Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart - Oxygen - Carbon dioxide - Nutrients - Wastes Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.  Digestive System - Breaks down food Blood vessels transport blood, - Allows for nutrient absorption into blood which carries oxygen, carbon - Eliminates indigestible material as feces dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.; the heart pumps blood.  Lymphatic System - Returns fluids to blood vessels - Cleanses the blood - Involved in immunity  Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood for Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. distribution to body cells; Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries as feces. produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands  Urinary System of female breast produce milk to nourish the newborn. - Eliminates nitrogenous wastes - Maintains acid-base balance Necessary Life Functions - Regulates water and electrolytes  Maintain boundaries  Movement  Locomotion  Movement of substances  Responsiveness  Ability to sense changes and react  Digestion  Breakdown and absorption of nutrients  Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body  Break down complex molecules into smaller ones  Build larger molecules from smaller ones  Produces energy  Regulated by hormones  Excretion Eliminates nitrogen-containing  Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions wastes from the body; regulates  Wastes may be removed in urine or feces water, electrolyte, and acid-base  Reproduction balance of the blood.  Occurs on cellular level or organismal level  Produces future generation  Reproductive System  Growth - Produces offspring  Increases cell size and number of cells - Testes produce sperm and male hormone - Ovaries produce eggs and female hormones Survival Needs  Nutrients - Chemicals for energy and cell building - Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals  Oxygen - Required for chemical reactions  Water - 60 to 80 percent of body weight  - Most abundant chemical in the human body  Posterior Body Landmarks - Provides for metabolic reaction  Stable body temperature - 37°C (98°F)  Atmospheric pressure - Must be appropriate for gas exchange Homeostasis  Homeostasis—maintenance of a stable internal environment - A dynamic state of equilibrium - Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life  Homeostatic imbalance - A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease Input: Information sent along Output: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. Control efferent pathway to effector. Center Afferent Efferent pathway pathway Effector Receptor detects change. Receptor Response of effector feeds Stimulus back to reduce produces the effect of stimulus and change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) returns variable to variable. homeostatic level.  Directional Terms The Language of Anatomy Superior (cranial or cephalad): toward the head end or upper  Special terminology is used to prevent part of a structure or the misunderstanding body; above  Exact terms are used for - Position - Direction - Regions Inferior (caudal): away from - Structures the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or Regional Terms the body; below  Anterior body landmarks Ventral (anterior): toward or at the front of the body; in front of Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the backside of the body; behind Medial: toward or Body Planes and Sections at the midline of the  A sagittal section divides the body (or body; on the inner organ) into left and right parts. side of  A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into equal left and right parts. Lateral: away  A frontal, or coronal, section divides the from the midline of body (or organ) into anterior and posterior the body; on the parts. outer side of  A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts. Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure Proximal: close to the origin of the body (c) Transverse plane part or point of (a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane attachment to a limb to the body trunk Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Superficial: toward or at the body surface Deep: away from the body surface; more internal Hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh  Chapter 2: Cells and Tissues Concepts of the Cell Theory  A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.  The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells. Right upper Left upper  According to the principle of quadrant quadrant complementarity, the biochemical (RUQ) (LUQ) activities of cells are dictated by the relative number of their specific subcellular structures.  Continuity of life has a cellular basis. Right lower Left lower quadrant quadrant Chemical Components of Cells (RLQ) (LLQ)  Most cells are composed of the following four elements - Carbon - Hydrogen - Oxygen - Nitrogen Anatomy of the Cell - Cells are not all the same. - All cells share general structures. - All cells have three main regions - Nucleus - Cytoplasm - Plasma membrane Nucleus Cytoplasm Plasma membrane Behold, the CELL…  (a) Cells that connect body parts (e) Cell that fights disease Rough ER and Golgi Fibroblasts apparatus Lysosomes No organelles Pseudopods Macrophage Nucleus Erythrocytes (b) Cells that cover and line body organs Nucleus Epithelial cells (f) Cell that gathers information and controls body functions Intermediate filaments Processes Rough ER (c) Cells that move organs and body parts Nerve cell Skeletal muscle cell Nucleus Contractile Nuclei filaments (g) Cell of reproduction Nucleus Flagellum Smooth muscle cells Sperm (d) Cell that stores nutrients Fat cell Body Tissues Lipid droplet  Tissues  Groups of cells with similar structure and function  Four primary types - Epithelial tissue (epithelium) - Connective tissue - Muscle tissue Nucleus - Nervous tissue  Epithelial Tissues  Locations - Body coverings - Body linings - Glandular tissue  Functions - Protection - Absorption - Filtration - Secretion Classification of Epithelia  Number of cell layers Simple—one layer Stratified—more than one layer (a) Classification based on number of cell layers Apical surface Simple Basal surface Simple Epithelia  Simple squamous - Single layer of flat cells Apical surface  Location - usually forms membranes - Lines body cavities - Lines lungs and capillaries Stratified  Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in membranes Air sacs of lungs Nucleus of Basal squamous Nuclei of surface epithelial cell squamous epithelial cells Basement membrane Photomicrograph: Simple Classification of Epithelia squamous epithelium (a) Diagram: Simple  Shape of cells squamous forming part of the  Squamous alveolar (air sac) walls (185×). - flattened  Cuboidal - cube-shaped Simple cuboidal  Columnar  Single layer of cube-like cells - column-like  Locations - Common in glands and their ducts - Forms walls of kidney tubules  - Covers the ovaries  Functions in secretion and absorption; Cilia ciliated types propel mucus or Pseudo- stratified reproductive cells epithelial Pseudo- layer stratified epithelial layer Simple Basement Nucleus of cuboidal Basement simple membrane membrane epithelial cuboidal cells Connective epithelial tissue cell Basement Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified membrane ciliated columnar epithelium lining (d) Diagram: Pseudostratified the human trachea (430×). Connective (ciliated) columnar Basement tissue membrane Photomicrograph: Simple (b) Diagram: Simple cuboidal cuboidal epithelium in kidney Stratified Epithelia tubules (250×).  Transitional epithelium - Composed of modified stratified squamous epithelium Simple columnar - Shape of cells depends upon the amount  Single layer of tall cells of stretching - Often includes mucus-producing goblet  Functions in stretching and the ability cells to return to normal shape  Location - lines digestive tract  Location - lines organs of the urinary  Functions in secretion and absorption; system ciliated types propel mucus or Basement reproductive cells membrane Transi- tional Simple epithelium Transitional Nucleus of columnar epithelium simple epithelial Basement columnar cell membrane epithelial Goblet cell Connective cell tissue Basement Photomicrograph: Transitional membrane (f) Diagram: Transitional epithelium lining of the bladder, Basement Connective relaxed state (215×); surface rounded membrane tissue cells flatten and elongate when the Photomicrograph: bladder fills with urine. Simple columnar (c) Diagram: Simple columnar epithelium of the small intestine (430×). Glandular Epithelium  Gland Pseudostratified columnar - One or more cells responsible for  Single layer, but some cells are shorter secreting a particular product than others - Secretions contain protein molecules in - Often looks like a double layer of cells but an aqueous (water-based) fluid all cells rest on the basement membrane  Two major gland types  Location - respiratory tract, where it is  Endocrine gland ciliated - Ductless since secretions diffuse into  Functions in absorption or secretion blood vessels - All secretions are hormones  Exocrine gland - Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface - Include sweat and oil glands  - Cells are attached to other cardiac muscle Connective Tissue cells at intercalated disks - Found everywhere in the body - Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues  Functions - Binds body tissues together Intercalated discs - Supports the body - Provides protection Nucleus Connective Tissue Types  Bone (osseous tissue) Photomicrograph: Cardiac - Composed of (b) Diagram: Cardiac muscle muscle (430×). - Bone cells in lacunae (cavities) Smooth muscle - Hard matrix of calcium salts - Under involuntary muscle - Large numbers of collagen fibers - Found in walls of hollow organs such as  Functions to protect and support the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels body - Characteristics of smooth muscle cells  Hyaline cartilage - No visible striations - Most common type of cartilage - One nucleus per cell - Composed of - Spindle-shaped cells - Abundant collagen fibers - Rubbery matrix Nervous Tissue  Locations - Composed of neurons and nerve support cells - Larynx (neuroglia)  Function is to send impulses to other areas - Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth of the body - Functions as a more flexible skeletal Irritability – able to respond to stimuli element than bone Conductivity – able to conduct impulses  Blood (vascular tissue) - Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect, - Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix and support neurons called blood plasma - Fibers are visible during clotting Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)  Functions as the transport vehicle for  Regeneration materials - Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells  Fibrosis - Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue Muscle Tissue (scar tissue)  Function is to produce movement  Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs  Three types depends on: - Skeletal muscle - Type of tissue damaged - Cardiac muscle - Severity of the injury - Smooth muscle Events in Tissue Repair  Inflammation Muscle Tissue Types - Capillaries become very permeable  Cardiac muscle - Clotting proteins migrate into the area from - Under involuntary control the blood stream - Found only in the heart - A clot walls off the injured area - Function is to pump blood  Granulation tissue forms - Growth of new capillaries - Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells - Rebuild collagen fibers Striated  Regeneration of surface epithelium - One nucleus per cell - Scab detaches Chapter 3: Integumentary System (SKIN) Function of the Body Membranes - Body membranes cover surfaces - line body cavities, and form protective - (and often lubricating) sheets around organs. They fall into two major groups: (1) Epithelial membranes - Cutaneous membrane - Mucous membrane - Serous membrane (2) Connective tissue membranes - represented by synovial membranes. Connective Tissue Cutaneous membrane Membrane The cutaneous membrane, generally called the  Synovial membrane skin or integumentary system, is the outer - Areolar connective covering that we all rely on for protection. tissue only - Lines fibrous capsules Composed of two layers; surrounding joints  The superficial epidermis - Line small sac of - composed Keratinized of stratified squamous connective tissue called epithelium bursae and the tube-like  The underlying dermis. tendon sheaths - mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue. Unlike other epithelial membranes, the cutaneous membrane is exposed to air and is a dry membrane. Integumentary System Mucous Membranes  Skin (cutaneous membrane)  Surface epithelium  Skin derivatives - Type depends on site - Sweat glands  Underlying loose connective tissue - Oil glands (lamina propria) - Hairs  Lines all body cavities that open to the - Nails exterior body surface  Often adapted for absorption or secretion Skin Functions  Wet membranes bathed in secretions  Protects deeper tissues from: - Mechanical damage Serous Membranes - Chemical damage  Surface simple squamous epithelium - Bacterial damage  Underlying areolar connective Tissue - Thermal damage  Lines open body cavities that are closed to - Ultraviolet radiation the exterior of the body - Desiccation  Occur in pairs – parietal and visceral - Protective and cushioning  Serous layers separated by serous fluid - Waterproof - Aids in heat regulation Specific serous membranes - Aids in excretion of salts, urea and uric  Peritoneum acid  Abdominal cavity - Synthesizes vitamin D  Pleura - Contains sensory receptors  Around the lungs  Pericardium Skin Structure  Around the heart  Epidermis – outer layer - Stratified squamous epithelium  -Often keratinized (hardened by keratin) - Shingle-like dead cells that are ¾ of the  Dermis epidermal thickness - Dense connective tissue - Completely filled with keratin cells called - Both firmly connected but can separate cornified or horny cells such as in a blister  Deep to dermis is the hypodermis - Not part of the skin - Anchors skin to underlying organs - Composed mostly of adipose tissue Melanin - Serves as shock absorber and insulation  Pigment (melanin) produced by for deeper tissues melanocytes  Color is yellow to brown to black  Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale  Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics and exposure to sunlight Normal Skin Color Determinants  Melanin – amount and kind - Yellow, brown or black pigments  Carotene - Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables  Hemoglobin - Red coloring from blood cells in dermis capillaries - Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring  Cyanosis- Low oxygen content creates a bluish appearance Layer of Epidermis  Redness or erythema – blushing Stratum basale – deepest layer  Pallor or blanching – pale from fear or - Cells undergoing mitosis anemia, low blood pressure, or impaired blood - Lies next to dermis and receives nutrients flow from the dermis by diffusion  Jaundice or yellow cast – liver disorder Stratum spinosum – old stratum basale cells where excess bile pigments are absorbed in the Stratum granulosum – old stratum spinosum blood cells  Bruises or black-and-blue marks – where Stratum lucidum blood has escaped from vessels and - Occurs only in thick, hairless skin clotted in the tissue spaces – called Stratum corneum hematomas.   Elastic fibers – give skin elasticity when we are young but lessens as we age along with collagen  Lots of blood vessels play a role in maintaining body temperature SKIN STRUCTURE Dermis – the “hide”  Two layers - Papillary layer - Projections called dermal papillae - Pain receptors and touch receptors - Capillary loops for nutrients Appendages of the Skin - Result in fingerprints  Arise from the epidermis and play a - Reticular layer role in maintaining homeostasis of - Blood vessels the body - Sweat and oil glands  Cutaneous glands – exocrine glands - Nerve receptors - Release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts  Sebaceous glands and sweat glands Sebaceous glands - Produce oil - sebum - Lubricant for skin - Kills bacteria - Prevents hair from becoming brittle - Most with ducts that empty into hair follicles - Glands are activated at puberty  Both collagen and elastic fibers are found in the dermis  Collagen – responsible for the toughness of the dermis and for binding water to keep it hydrated  Sweat glands – sudoriferous glands - Helps dissipate excess heat – - Widely distributed in skin eccrine only  Two types - Excretes waste products  Eccrine - Acidic nature inhibits bacteria - Open via duct to pore on skin growth surface  Odor is from associated bacteria living off proteins and fats Hair  Serves a few minor protective functions  Used to serve as insulation and still does in some animals  Produced by a hair follicle – flexible epithelial structure  Part of the hair enclosed in the follicle is the root  Part projecting from the surface of the scalp is the shaft  Produced by hair bulb matrix  Apocrine  Consists of hard Keratinized - Ducts empty into hair follicles epithelial cells  Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color Sweat and Its Function  Composition - Mostly water with some salts and Hair Anatomy vitamin C  Central core called the medulla - Some metabolic waste and lactic  Cortex surrounds medulla acid  Cuticle on outside of cortex formed - Fatty acids and proteins (apocrine from a single layer of cells that only), which may have a milky or ] overlap like shingles on a roof to yellowish color keep hairs separated  Function - Most heavily keratinized to provide strength - Worn more at tips to cause split - The thickened proximal area ends called the nail matrix is responsible for nail growth - Lack of pigment makes them colorless - Appear pink due to blood vessels underneath - White crescent – lunula – thickened nail matrix Nail Structures  Each nail has three parts - Free edge - Body - Root of nail Associated Hair Structures Eponychium – proximal nail fold that  Hair follicle projects onto the nail body – often - Dermal (provides blood called cuticle vessels) and epidermal sheath surround hair root  Arrector pilli - Smooth muscle cause the hair to stand up – goose bumps  Sebaceous (oil) gland  Sweat gland Skin Homeostatic Imbalances  Infections  Athletes foot – tinea pedis - Caused by fungal infection on feet  Boils and carbuncles - Caused by bacterial infection –  Staphylococcus aureus – in hair follicles and sebaceous glands Nails  Cold sores – fever blisters - Scale-like modifications of the - Caused by herpes simplex viral epidermis infection usually on lips and in - Heavily keratinized oral mucosa of the mouth. - Stratum basale extends beneath  Infections and allergies the nail bed - Contact dermatitis - Exposures to certain chemicals cause allergic reaction  Impetigo Severity of Burns - Pink, water-filled, raised lesions  First-degree burns around the mouth caused by - Only epidermis is damaged staphylococcus bacterial infection - Skin is red and swollen  Psoriasis - Partial-thickness burn that heals - Cause is unknown but chronic quickly - Triggered by trauma, infection,  Second degree burns stress - Epidermis and upper dermis are  Burns damaged - Tissue damage and cell death - Skin is red with blisters caused by heat, electricity, UV - Partial-thickness burn that heals radiation, or chemicals w/o scar - Nearly every body system is  Third-degree burns affected when skin is severely - Destroys entire skin layer damaged - Burn is gray-white or black  Associated dangers - Nerve endings destroyed so not - Dehydration painful - Electrolyte imbalance - Full-thickness burn that does not - Circulatory shock heal and grafting is - Infection - Full-thickness burn that does not Rules of Nines heal and grafting is necessary  Way to determine the extent of  Fourth-degree burns burns Extend through the skin to injure  Body is divided into 11 areas for muscle, ligaments, tendons, nerves, quick estimation blood vessels, and bones  Each area represents about 9% These burns always require medical  Rule of nines treatment - Classified according to their severity (depth) Critical Burns  Burns are considered critical if:  Over 25% of body has second degree burns  Over 10% of the body has third degree burns  There are third degree burns of the face, hands, or feet Skin Cancer  Cancer – abnormal cell mass - Two types  Benign  Malignant melanoma - Does not spread (encapsulated) - Most deadly of skin cancers  Malignant - Cancer of melanocytes - Metastasized (moves) to other - Metastasizes rapidly to lymph parts of the body and blood vessels  Skin cancer is the most common - Detection uses ABCD rule type of cancer Skin Cancer Types  Basal cell carcinoma - Least malignant - Most common type - Arises from stratum basale that no longer makes keratin and stays in place ABCD Rule  A = Asymmetry - Two sides of pigmented mole do not match  B = Border irregularity - Borders of mole are not smooth  C = Color - Different colors in pigmented area  D = Diameter  Squamous cell carcinoma - Spot is larger then 6 mm in - Arises from stratum spinosum diameter - Metastasizes to lymph nodes - Early removal allows a good chance of cure Chapter 4: Skeletal System The Skeltal System  Parts of the skeletal system: - Bones (skeleton) - Joints - Cartilages - Ligaments  Two subdivisions of the skeleton:  Axial skeleton  Appendicular skeleton Functions of the Bone  Support the body Spongy  Protect soft organs bone - Skull and vertebrae protect brain Compact and spinal cord bone - Rib cage protects thoracic cavity organs Bones are classified on the basis of  Attached skeletal muscles allow shape into four groups: movement  Store minerals and fats - Calcium and phosphorus - Fat in the internal marrow cavity  Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) Classification of the Bones  The adult skeleton has 206 bones  Two basic types of osseous (bone) tissue 1. Compact bone - Dense, smooth, and homogeneous 2. Spongy bone - Small needle like pieces of bone - Many open spaces Bones are classified on the basis of shape into four groups: - Long (a) Long bones - Flat - Typically longer than they are wide - Short - Shaft with enlarged ends - Irregular - Contain mostly compact bone; spongy bone at ends  - All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist, ankle, and kneecap bones) are (c) Short bones long bones - Generally cube-shaped - Examples: - Contain mostly spongy bone with an  Femur outer layer of compact bone  Humerus - Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone that form within tendons (patella) - Examples:  Carpals (wrist bones)  Tarsals (ankle bones) (a) Long bone (humerus) (c) Short bone (talus) (b) Flat bones - Thin, flattened, and usually curved - Two thin layers of compact bone sandwich a layer of spongy bone (d) Irregular bones between them - Irregular shape - Examples: - Do not fit into other bone  Most bones of the skull classification categories  Ribs - Examples:  Sternum  Vertebrae  Hip bones (b) Flat bone (sternum) (d)Irregular bone (vertebra), right lateral view Structure of the Bone  Articular cartilage  Long bone anatomy - Covers the external surface of the  Diaphysis (shaft) epiphyses - Makes up most of bone’s length - Made of hyaline cartilage - Composed of compact bone - Decreases friction at joint surfaces  Epiphyseal line - Remnant of the epiphyseal plate  Periosteum - Seen in adult bones - Outside covering of the diaphysis - Fibrous connective tissue membrane - Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure periosteum to underlying bone.  Epiphyseal plate - Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone - Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone  Epiphysis (ends) - Composed mostly of spongy bone enclosed by thin layer of compact bone  Endosteum - Lines the inner surface of the shaft - Made of connective tissue  Medullary cavity - Cavity inside the shaft - Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults - Contains red marrow for blood cell formation in infants until age 6 or 7 Microscopic anatomy of spongy bone - Composed of small, needlelike pieces of bone called trabeculae and open spaces - Open spaces are filled by marrow, Structure of the Bone blood vessels, and nerves  Bone markings - Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments - Passages for nerves and blood vessels  Categories of bone markings - Projections or processes—grow out from the bone surface - Terms often begin with “T” - Depressions/cavities—indentations - Terms often begin with “F” Microscopic anatomy of compact bone  Osteocytes - Mature bone cells situated in bone matrix  Lacunae - Cavities in bone matrix that house osteocytes  Lamellae - Concentric circles of lacunae Bone Fractures situated around the central  Fracture: break in a bone (Haversian) canal Types of bone fractures:  Central (Haversian) canal - Closed (simple) fracture is a break - Opening in the center of an osteon that does not penetrate the skin (Haversian system) - Open (compound) fracture is a - Runs lengthwise through bone broken bone that penetrates - Carries blood vessels and nerves through the skin  Osteon (Haversian system) - Bone fractures are treated by - A unit of bone containing central reduction and immobilization canal and matrix rings  Closed reduction: bones are - Structural and functional unit of manually coaxed into position by compact bone physician’s hands  Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or wires during surgery  Healing time is 6–8 weeks Stages in Healing a Bone Fracture:  Canaliculi - Tiny canals - Radiate from the central canal to lacunae - Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply  Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal - Canal perpendicular to the central Table: Common Type of Fractures: canal - Carries blood vessels and nerves Axial Skeleton 3 Ethmoid bone  Forms the longitudinal axis of the 4 Sphenoid bone body 5, 6Parietal bones (pair)  Divided into three parts 7, 8Temporal bones (pair) - Skull - Vertebral column  14 facial bones - Bony thorax 1, 2 Maxillae (pair) 3, 4 Palatine bones (pair) 5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair) 7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair) 9,10 Nasal bones (pair) 11 Vomer bone 12,13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair) 14 Mandible Hyoid bone - Closely related to mandible and temporal bones - The only bone that does not articulate with another bone - Serves as a movable base for the tongue - Aids in swallowing and speech Skull  Two sets of bones form the skull 1. Cranium bones enclose the brain 2. Facial bones - Hold eyes in anterior position - Allow facial muscles to express feelings  Bones are joined by sutures  Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint  8 cranial bones protect the brain 1 Frontal bone 2 Occipital bone Vertebral Column (Spine) The C-shaped spine typical of a newborn.  Vertebral column provides axial support - Extends from skull to the pelvis  26 vertebral bones are separated by intervertebral discs - 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck - 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region - 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back - Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae) Parts of a typical vertebra - Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5 - Body (centrum) vertebrae) - Vertebral arch - Pedicle - Lamina - Vertebral foramen - Transverse processes - Spinous process - Superior and inferior articular processes Primary curvatures - Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions - Present from birth - Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns Secondary curvatures - Spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions - Develop after birth - Form an S-shaped curvature in adults  Appendicular Skeleton Sacrum and coccyx, posterior view.  Composed of 126 bones - Limbs (appendages) - Pectoral girdle - Pelvic girdle Thoracic Cage  Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects organs of the thoracic cavity  Consists of three parts 1. Sternum 2. Ribs - True ribs (pairs 1–7) - False ribs (pairs 8–12) - Floating ribs (pairs 11–12) 3. Thoracic vertebrae Bones of the Shoulder Girdle  Also called pectoral girdle  Composed of two bones that attach the upper limb to the axial skeletal - Clavicle - Scapula  Light, poorly reinforced girdle  Allows the upper limb a exceptional flexibility  Bones of the right arm and forearm: (a) Articulated right shoulder (pectoral) The forearm has two bones: girdle showing the relationship to  Ulna—medial bone in anatomical bones of the thorax and sternum position - Proximal end articulation - Coronoid process and olecranon articulate with the humerus  Radius—lateral bone in anatomical position - Proximal end articulation - Head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus Bones of the Upper Limb  Humerus - Forms the arm - Single bone - Proximal end articulation - Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula - Distal end articulation - Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the forearm Hand  Carpals—wrist bones - 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in each hand  Metacarpals—palm bones - 5 per hand  Phalanges—fingers and thumb - 14 phalanges in each hand - In each finger, there are 3 bones - In the thumb, there are only 2 bones Bones of the Lower Limbs  Femur—thigh bone - The heaviest, strongest bone in the body  Proximal end articulation - Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal (hip) bone  Distal end articulation - Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in the lower leg Bones of the right thigh and leg: Bones of the Pelvic Girdle  Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones  Composed of three pairs of fused bones 1. Ilium 2. Ischium 3. Pubis  Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, sacrum  Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx  The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis Medial  Pelvis protects several organs - Reproductive organs epicondyle - Urinary bladder - Part of the large intestine  The lower leg has two bones  Phalanges—14 bones form the toes 1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and medially oriented Bones of the right foot, superior view:  Proximal end articulation - Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the femur to form the knee joint  Distal end articulation - Medial malleolus forms the inner part of the ankle 2. Fibula—thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia  Has no role in forming the knee joint  Distal end articulation - Lateral malleolus forms the outer part of the ankle Bones of the right thigh and leg: Joints  Joints are articulations - Occur where two or more bones meet  Functions of joints - Hold bones together securely - Allow for mobility  Two ways joints are classified - Functionally - Structurally Structural joint classifications  Fibrous joints - Generally immovable  Cartilaginous joints - Immovable or slightly movable  Synovial joints Foot - Freely movable  Tarsals—7 bones 1. Fibrous joints - Two largest tarsals are the:  Bones are united by fibrous tissue - Calcaneus (heel bone)  Types - Talus -Sutures  Metatarsals—5 bones form the -Immobile sole of the foot - Syndesmoses  - Allow more movement than sutures Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton but still immobile  Fetal skull - Found on the distal ends of tibia and  Fontanels are fibrous membranes fibula connecting the cranial bones - Gomphoses  Known as “soft spots” - Immobile  Allow skull compression during - Found where the teeth meet the birth facial bones.  Allow the brain to grow during later 2. Cartilaginous joints pregnancy and infancy  Bones are connected by  Usually ossify by 2 years of age fibrocartilage  Types - Synchrondrosis - Immobile - Found in epiphyseal plates of growing long bones - Symphysis - Slightly movable - Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints 3. Synovial joints  Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity  Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity  Four distinguishing features of synovial joints  Articular cartilage  Articular capsule  Joint cavity  Reinforcing ligaments Skeletal changes  At birth, the head and trunk are proportionately much longer than the lower limbs  During puberty:  Female pelvis broadens  Entire male skeleton becomes more robust  By the end of adolescence:  Epiphyseal plates become fully ossified Chapter 5: Muscular System Microscopic Anatomy of the Muscle  Skeletal muscle fibers are long, - is an organ system consisting of multinucleated cells. The skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles. It membrane of the cell is the permits movement of the body, sarcolemma; maintains posture, and circulates blood  the cytoplasm of the cell is the throughout the body. The muscular sarcoplasm. The sarcoplasmic systems are controlled through the reticulum (SR) is a form of nervous system although some muscles endoplasmic reticulum. can be completely autonomous.  Muscle fibers are composed of myofibrils. Muscle  a band or bundle of fibrous tissue 3 Types of Muscle Tissues: that has the ability to contract, 1. Smooth producing movement in or 2. Skeletal maintaining the position of parts of 3. Cardiac the body:  Muscle cells contain protein Smooth Muscles filaments of actin and myosin that  is a type of muscle tissue which is slide past one another, producing a used by various systems to apply contraction that changes both the pressure to vessels and organs. length and the shape of the cell.  Smooth muscle is composed of Muscles function to produce force sheets or strands of smooth muscle and motion. cells. These cells have fibers of actin and myosin which run through the cell and are supported by a framework of other proteins. Smooth muscles are located in the control of the somatic nervous following organs: system.  Walls of stomach  Ureters  Intestines  In the aorta (tunica media layer)  Iris of the eye  Prostate  Gastrointestinal Tract  Respiratory Tract  Small arteries  Arterioles  Reproductive tracts (both genders)  Veins  Glomeruli of the Kidneys (calledmesangial cells)  Bladder  Uterus  Most skeletal muscles are attached  Arrector pili of the skin to bones by bundles of collagen  Ciliary muscle fibers known as tendons.  Sphincter  Trachea Divisions of the Muscular System  Bile duct 1. Head Muscles 2. Neck Muscles Cardiac Muscle 3. Upper Body Muscles  (also called heart muscle or 4. Lower Body Muscles myocardium). It is an involuntary, 5. Hand Muscles (video) striated muscle that constitutes the 6. Muscles of the Foot (video) main tissue of the walls of the 7. Simple Muscle Movements heart. Head Muscles  The muscles of the head and neck perform many important tasks, including movement of the head and neck, chewing and swallowing, speech, facial expressions, and movement of the eyes.  These diverse tasks require both strong, forceful movements and some of the fastest, finest, and most delicate adjustments in the entire human body. Skeletal Muscles  It is a form of striated muscle tissue,which is under the voluntary  eyelid It has three distinct parts – palpebral, lacrimal, and orbital. a. Palpebral part – gently closes the eyelids. b. Lacrimal part – involved in the drainage of tears. c. Orbital part – tightly closes the eyelids.  The muscles of the face are unique among groups of muscles in the body. While most muscles connect to and move only bones, facial muscles mostly connect bones to skin.  The muscles of the head are divided into: - Muscles of Facial Expression, Corrugator Supercilii - Muscles of Mastication  It is a much smaller muscle and is - Tongue. located posteriorly to the orbicularis oculi. I. Muscles of Facial Expression  Acts to draw the eyebrows  The muscles of facial expression are together, creating vertical wrinkles located in the subcutaneous tissue, on the bridge of the nose originating from bone or fascia, and inserting onto the skin. By contracting, the muscles pull on the skin and exert their effects.  They are the only group of muscles that insert into the skin. It can broadly be split into three groups: A. Orbital Group B. Nasal group C. Oral Group A. Orbital Group - Orbicularis Oculi - Corrugator Supercilii Orbicularis Oculi  is the muscle that surrounds the eye socket and extends into the B. Nasal Group 3. Depressor Septi Nasi It includes the following:  It pulls the nose inferiorly, opening A. Nasalis the nares. B. Procerus C. Depressor Septi Nasi 1. Nasalis  It is the largest of the nasal muscles. It is split into two parts: - Transverse - Alar  The transverse part compresses the nares  Alar part opens the nares. C. Oral Group 1. Orbicularis Oris 2. Buccinator 3. Other Oral Muscle 1. Orbicularis Oris  The fibers of the orbicularis oris enclose the opening to the oral cavity. Purses the lips. 2. Procerus  The contraction of this muscle pulls the eyebrows downward to produce transverse wrinkles over the nose. 2. Buccinator  This muscle is located between the mandible and maxilla. It pulls the cheek inwards against the teeth,  preventing accumulation of food in 2. Depressor Labii Inferioris - facial that area. muscle that helps lower the bottom lip. 3. Other Oral Muscles 3. Mentalis - elevates the base of the  There are other muscles that act on lower lip, thus everting and protruding the lips and mouth. Anatomically, it. This movement also wrinkles the skin they can be divided into: of the chin. - Upper Group - Lower Groups The Lower Group The Lower Group contains the : 1. Depressor Anguli Oris - facial muscle associated with frowning The Upper Group The Upper Group contains the following: 1. Risorius - helps to create a smile or a frown, and myriad other expressions in-between.  4. Levator Labii Superioris Alaeque Nasi - dilate the nostrils and elevate the upper lip. This action enables a 'snarl' facial expression, made famous by Elvis Presley and earning it the nickname 'The Elvis Muscle. ‘ 2. Zygomaticus Major - helping to smile by pulling the muscles upward II. Muscles of Mastication 1. Masseter 2. Temporalis 3. Medial Pterygoid 4. Lateral Pterygoid Masseter  It is the most powerful muscle of 3. Zygomaticus Minor - facilitate mastication. It is quadrangular in speech, as well as to enable various shape, and can be split into two facial expressions, such as smiling. parts: deep and superficial.  Elevates the mandible, closing the mouth. Temporalis III. The tongue  Elevates the mandible, closing the  A boneless mass that you can mouth. Also retracts the mandible, protrude at will, fold, invert, lay flat pulling the jaw posteriorly. or fill the mouth. These muscles are divided into : - Intrinsic - Extrinsic Medial Pterygoid  Elevates the mandible, closing the Intrinsic Muscles mouth.  The Intrinsic muscles only attach to other structures in the tongue. There are four paired intrinsic muscles of the tongue and they are named by the direction in which they travel: A. Superior Longitudinal B. Inferior Longitudinal C. Transverse D. Vertical muscles  These muscles affect the shape and size of the tongue – for example, in tongue rolling – and have a role in facilitating speech, eating and Lateral Pterygoid- Acting bilaterally, the swallowing. lateral pterygoids protract the mandible, pushing the jaw forwards. Unilateral Extrinsic Muscles action produces the ‘side to side’  The four extrinsic muscles originate movement of the jaw. from bone and extend to the tongue. They are the: 1. Genioglossus 2. Hyoglossus (often including the chondroglossus) 3. Styloglossus 4. Palatoglossus.  Their main functions are altering the tongue's position allowing for  protrusion, retraction, and neck. They all act to elevate the side-to-side movement. hyoid bone – an action involved in swallowing. Neck Muscles  Stylohyoid - Initiates swallowing  There are 26 muscles in the neck. action They are divided into 4 groups of  Digastric - Depresses the mandible muscles. and elevates the hyoid bone. 1. The Suboccipital  Mylohyoid - Elevates the hyoid 2. The Suprahyoid Muscles bone and the floor of the mouth. 3. The Infrahyoid Muscles  Geniohyoid - Depresses the 4. The Scalene Muscles. mandible and elevates the hyoid bone The Suboccipital Muscles:  A group of four muscles situated underneath the occipital bone. All the muscles in this group are innervated by the suboccipital nerve.  Rectus Capitis Posterior Major - Extends and rotates the head.  Rectus Capitis Posterior Minor - Extends the head  Obliquus Capitis Inferior - Extends and rotates of the head The Infrahyoid Muscles  Obliquus Capitis Superior -  The Infrahyoid Muscles are a facilitate the movements of the group of four muscles that are head and neck and maintain located inferiorly to the hyoid posture by supporting the bone in the neck. They can be atlantoaxial joint. divided into two groups: 1. Superficial plane– omohyoid and sternohyoid muscles. 2. Deep plane– sternothyroid and thyrohyoid muscles. The Scalene Muscles  They are three paired muscles The Suprahyoid Muscles: located in the lateral aspect of  A group of four muscles, located the neck. They act as accessory superiorly to the hyoid bone of the  muscles of respiration, and perform flexion at the neck. Pectoral Muscles 1. Anterior – causes anterior flexion  colloquially referred to as "pecs") of the neck. are the muscles that connect the 2. Middle – causes lateral flexion of front of the human chest with the the neck bones of the upper arm and 3. Posterior - elevate the second rib shoulder. The pectoral region is and tilt the neck to the same side. located on the anterior chest wall. They also act as accessory muscles It contains four muscles that of inspiration. exert a force on the upper limb; 1. Pectoralis Major - makes up the bulk of the chest muscles and lies under the breast. 2. Pectoralis Minor -stabilization, depression, abduction or protraction, internal rotation and downward rotation of the scapula. It elevates the ribs for deep inspiration when the pectoral girdle is fixed or elevated Upper Body Muscles 1. Abdominal Muscles 2. Pectoral Muscles 3. Deltoid 4. Trapezius 5. Biceps 6. Triceps Deltoid 7. Brachioradialis  It is a rounded, triangular muscle Abdominal Muscles located on the  They are located between the uppermost part of ribs and the pelvis on the front of the arm and the the body. The abdominal top of the shoulder. muscles support the trunk, allow It is named after movement and hold organs in the Greek letter place by regulating internal delta, which is abdominal pressure. shaped like an equilateral triangle. 1. Anterior - abduction, flexion, and internal rotation 2. Lateral - involved in shoulder abduction when the shoulder is internally rotated. It is involved in shoulder flexion when the shoulder is internally rotated. 3. Posterior - act with the latissimus dorsi to produce extension of the arm during ambulation Trapezius Muscles of the Hand  It moves Intrinsic Muscles the  Muscles that has both origin and scapula insertion points within the hand and 1. Thenar muscles supports - muscles of the thumb the arm. - median nerve > carpal tunnel > recurrent branch of the median nerves Biceps  abductor pollicis brevis  A large  flexor pollicis brevis muscle in the  opponens pollicis upper arm 2. Hypothenar Muscles which turns - small finger (pinky) the hand to muscles face palm - ulnar nerve > Guyon’s uppermost canal and flexes the  abductor digiti minimi arm and forearm. It is a powerful  flexor digiti minimi prime mover for flexion of the  opponens digiti minimi forearm and acts to supinate the 3. Lumbrical Muscles forearm - found in 4 fingers - originate from the FDP tendon Triceps -has the extensor expansion hood  A large muscle - flex MCP joints on the back of - extend IP joints the upper limb 4. Adductor pollicis of many - transverse and oblique vertebrates. heads Responsible for - responsible for thumb extension of adduction the elbow joint 5. Palmar interossei (3) (straightening - adduct all fingers of the arm). toward the midline 6. Dorsal interossei (4) Brachioradialis - abduct all fingers toward the  is a muscle of the midline forearm that flexes the forearm at the elbow. It is also capable of both Lower Body Muscles pronation and 1. Gluteus supination, 2. Quadriceps depending on the 3. Hamstrings position of the 4. Gastrocnemius forearm. 5. Soleus Gluteus  Any of three muscles in each buttock which move the thigh,  the largest of which is the gluteus maximus. 1. Gluteus Maximus - movement of Gastrocnemius the hip and thigh  It is a superficial two-headed 2. Gluteus Medius - stabilizes the muscle that is in the back part pelvis while standing or walking. of the lower leg of humans. 3. Gluteus Minimus - hip stabilization and abduction. Soleus  The plantar flexor muscle of the ankle. It is capable of exerting powerful forces onto the ankle joint. Quadriceps  A large muscle group that includes the four prevailing muscles on the front of the thigh. It is the great extensor muscle of the knee, forming a large fleshy mass which covers the front and sides of the femur. 1. Vastus Lateralis - extend the lower leg and allow the body to rise Muscles up from a squatting position of the Foot 2. Vastus Intermedius - primary  Intrinsic muscles of the foot function is knee extension are those that have both their origin 3. Vastus Medialis - extend the leg and insertion points within the foot at the knee and to stabilize the the intrinsic muscles are separated patella, which is also known as the into two groups: kneecap. 1. plantar group 4. Rectus Femoris - By acting on 2. dorsal group the hip joint, it helps with thigh flexion. Dorsal Group When its patellar attachment is fixed,  consists of only one group of this muscle aids to flex the pelvis muscles anteriorly towards the thigh. Extensor digitorum brevis  originates both superiorly and laterally on the calcaneus  the first muscle of the extensor digitorum brevis inserts on the proximal base of the Hamstrings greater toe phalanx  It allows the thigh to  all of the other muscles within the extend, tibia to group insert laterally to the rotate, and knee to accentuate digitorum longus flex. Susceptible to tendon injury.  the function of the muscle is to extend the digits at the MTP The SECOND LAYER has two joints muscles in total 1. Quadratus plantae Plantar Group  has two heads which originate on  The FIRST LAYER is made up of the medial and lateral side of the three muscles calcaneus 1. Flexor  the muscle inserts onto the digitorum brevis lateral side of the flexor digitorum  Originates on longus tendon and helps the the medial tendon to flex the toes process of 2. Lumbricals the  the first lumbrical originates calcaneus from the medial side of the each of its tendon and inserts onto the four strands dorsal surface of the split and insert onto the medial second one and lateral side of the four  all of the other three phalanx lumbricals are bipennate  this split enables the flexor muscles and originate from digitorum longus tendon to pass adjacent sides of the through and insert onto the tendon and insert onto the middle of the four lateral phalanx extensor heads of the three digits  the function of the flexor  the function of the lumbricals is digitorum brevis is to flex the four to flex at the MTP joints was lateral digits at the proximal extending the interphalangeal interphalangeal joint joints 2. Abductor hallucis  medial to the flexor The THIRD LAYER within the plantar digitorum brevis group has three muscles in  originates on the total medial process of 1. Flexor hallucis brevis the calcaneus and  lies underneath the flexor inserts medially at hallucis longus tendon the base of the  the muscle has two origin proximal phalanx points and two insertion  The function of the abductor points one origin is on the hallucis is to flex and abduct of cuboid bone and the other the great toe origin is on the posterior 3. Abductor digiti tibialis tendon minimi  The insertion point for the muscle  originates from the is the medial and lateral base of lateral process of the phalanx of the greater toe the calcaneus and  the function of the muscle is to inserts onto the flex the big toe at the MTP joints proximal base of the the phalanx 2. Abductor hallucis  its function is to flex  has both a transverse and and abduct the fifth oblique head digit  the transverse head runs 2. Dorsal interossei muscles horizontally along the foot and  are bipennate muscles that originates on the deep originate on both sides of the transverse metatarsal 2,3, and 4 metatarsal ligaments  the first three muscles insert  the transverse head laterally to the bone of the inserts at the base of proximal phalanges 2-4 the proximal phalanx  the fourth dorsal interossei  the oblique head muscle medially only as a originates both on function of the dorsal interossei the base of the muscle is to adduct the metatarsals metatarsal phalangeal joint two-two-four and also on the peroneus longus tendon Chapter 6: The Nervous System:  the insertion point is on the base of the proximal phalanx  the function of the abductor hallucis muscle is to abduct the great toe 2. flexor digiti minimi brevis  this muscle originates on the bone of the fifth metatarsal and inserts onto the base of the proximal phalanx  its function is to flex the little toe  The Nervous system is a  made up with the complex network of nerves and plantar and cells that carry messages to and dorsal interossei from the brain and spinal cord to muscle various parts of the body.  Divided into 2: The FOURTH LAYER a. Central Nervous System 1. Plantar interossei muscle b. Peripheral Nervous System  originates medially on the metatarsals I. The Central Nervous System 3,4, and 5 and - It is made up of the Brain and inserts onto the Spinal Cord. base of the proximal phalanges digits 3-5  the function of the plantar interossei muscle is to adduct the toes three to five at the MTP joint  Cerebrum or the Cerebral Hemispheres A. The Brain Divided into 4 lobes:  The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous 1. Frontal lobe system.  the part of the  It is the most complex organ in a brain that controls vertebrate's body. important  Divided in 6 parts. cognitive skills in humans, such as emotional expression, problem solving, memory, language, judgment, and sexual behaviors.  It is, in essence, the “control panel” of our personality and our ability to communicate. 2. Parietal Lobe  The parietal lobes are 6 Important Parts: divided into two functional regions.  Cerebrum – most superior part  One involves of the brain. sensation and  Cerebellum - responsible for perception and the coordinating voluntary other is concerned movements. with integrating  Diencephalon - acts as a sensory input, primary relay and processing primarily with the visual system. center for sensory information  The second function integrates and autonomic control sensory information to form a  Midbrain - associated with vision, single perception (cognition). hearing, motor control, sleep and wakefulness, arousal (alertness), 3. Occipital Lobe and temperature regulation.  the visual processing area of the  Pons - bridge between various brain. parts of the nervous system.  It is associated with visuospatial  Medulla Oblungata - containing processing, distance and depth control centers for the heart and perception, color determination, lungs object and face recognition, and memory. 4. Temporal Lobe  is involved in primary auditory perception, such a