REVIEW-I-CHAPTER-1-3.pdf

1 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) CHAPTER 1 II. THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT I. THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL...

1 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) CHAPTER 1 II. THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT I. THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES ❖ DEVELOPMENT - pattern of change that begins at conception and ❖ BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES - changes in an individual’s physical continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, nature. Genes inherited from parents, brain development, height although it also includes decline brought on by aging and dying. and weight gains, changes in motor skills, nutrition, exercise, the ❖ LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE - perspective that development is lifelong, hormonal changes of puberty, and cardiovascular decline are all multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and examples of biological processes that affect development contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and is ❖ COGNITIVE PROCESSES - changes in the individual’s thought, constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors intelligence, and language. working together. ❖ SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES - changes in the individual’s - development occurs throughout life relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality life-span approach emphasizes developmental change throughout ❖ CONNECTING BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL adulthood as well as childhood PROCESSES upper boundary of the human life span (based on the oldest age - Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are documented) is 122 years - this maximum life span of humans has inextricably intertwined. E.g. baby smiling in response to a not changed since the beginning of recorded history. parent’s touch – response depends on biological processes life expectancy—the average number of years that a person born (the physical nature of touch and responsiveness to it), in a particular year can expect to live. cognitive processes (the ability to understand intentional acts), ~ COMPONENTS OF LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE ~ and socioemotional processes (the fact that smiling often A. DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG - no age period dominates reflects a positive emotional feeling and helps to connect us in development positive ways with other human beings). B. DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL - No matter what your age - TWO RAPIDLY EMERGING FIELDS: might be, your body, mind, emotions, and relationships are a) developmental cognitive neuroscience, which explores changing and affecting each other links between development, cognitive processes, and the - Development has biological, cognitive, and socioemotional brain dimensions b) developmental social neuroscience, which examines C. DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIRECTIONAL - Throughout life, some connections between socioemotional processes, dimensions or components of a dimension expand and others development, and the brain shrink. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT D. DEVELOPMENT IS PLASTIC - Plasticity means the capacity for ❖ DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD - refers to a time frame in a person’s life change. that is characterized by certain features. E. DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE IS MULTIDISCIPLINARY - Psychologists, PRENATAL PERIOD - from conception to birth sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical INFANCY - period from birth to 18 or 24 months; extreme researchers all share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of dependence upon adults. development through the life span. TODDLER - 1 ½ to 3 years of age; a transitional period between F. DEVELOPMENT IS CONTEXTUAL - All development occurs within a infancy and the next period context, or setting. E.g. families, schools, peer groups, churches, EARLY CHILDHOOD - period from 3 through 5 years of age; cities, neighborhoods, university laboratories, countries, and so on. “preschool years;” learn to become more self-sufficient and to Each of these settings is influenced by historical, economic, social, care for themselves, develop school readiness skills; spend and cultural factors many hours playing with peers. THREE TYPES OF INFLUENCES MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD - 6 to 10 or 11 years of age; 1. NORMATIVE AGE-GRADED INFLUENCES master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and − similar for individuals in a particular age group arithmetic, and they are formally exposed to the larger world − biological processes such as puberty and menopause and its culture − sociocultural factors and environmental processes such ADOLESCENCE - transition from childhood to early adulthood; as beginning formal education (usually at about age 6 in 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to 21 years of age; most cultures) and retiring from the workforce (which begins with rapid physical changes—dramatic gains in height takes place during the fifties and sixties in most cultures). and weight, changes in body contour, and the development 2. NORMATIVE HISTORY-GRADED of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, − of a particular generation because of historical growth of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice circumstances EMERGING ADULTHOOD - transition from adolescence to − e.g. World War II in the 1940s, the civil rights and women’s adulthood; 18 to 25 years of age; many individuals are still rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s, the terrorist exploring which career path they want to follow, what they attacks of 9/11/2001, the integration of computers and want their identity to be, and which lifestyle they want to adopt cell phones into everyday life during the 1990s EARLY ADULTHOOD - begins in the early twenties and lasts 3. NONNORMATIVE OR HIGHLY INDIVIDUALIZED LIFE EVENTS through the thirties; establishing personal and economic − unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the independence, advancing in a career, and for many, lives of individual people. selecting a mate, learning to live with that person in an − events do not happen to everyone, and when they do intimate way, starting a family, and rearing children. occur, they can influence people in different ways MIDDLE ADULTHOOD - 40 to about 60 years of age; expanding − e.g. death of a parent when a child is young personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting G. DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, AND the next generation in becoming competent REGULATION OF LOSS - mastery of life often involves conflicts and LATE ADULTHOOD - begins during the sixties or seventies and competition among three goals of human development: growth, lasts until death; time of life review, retirement, and adjustment maintenance, and regulation of loss to new social roles and diminishing strength and health. H. DEVELOPMENT IS A CO-CONSTRUCTION OF BIOLOGY, CULTURE, AND ❖ FOUR AGES THE INDIVIDUAL - Development is a co-construction of biological, First age: Childhood and adolescence cultural, and individual factors working together Second age: Prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59 Third age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age 2 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) Fourth age: Approximately 80 years and older ❖ FREUD’S THEORY ❖ THREE DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS OF AGING - States that children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual NORMAL AGING - psychological functioning often peaks in impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to early middle age, remains relatively stable until the late fifties the genitals. As a result, we go through five stages of to early sixties, and then shows a modest decline through the psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and early eighties; marked decline can occur as individuals genital approach death - Our adult personality, Freud (1917) claimed, is determined by PATHOLOGICAL AGING - individuals who show greater than the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at average decline as they age through the adult years; may each stage and the demands of reality have mild cognitive impairment, develop Alzheimer disease later on, or have a chronic disease that impairs their daily functioning SUCCESSFUL AGING - individuals whose positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development is maintained longer, declining later in old age than is the case for most people ❖ CONCEPTIONS OF AGE ▪ CHRONOLOGICAL AGE is the number of years that have elapsed since birth. ▪ BIOLOGICAL AGE is a person’s age in terms of biological health. − involves knowing the functional capacities of a person’s vital organs. ▪ PSYCHOLOGICAL AGE is an individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age. ▪ SOCIAL AGE refers to connectedness with others and the social ❖ ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY - Includes eight stages of human roles individuals adopt. development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. ❖ NATURE AND NURTURE - crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point marked by both - involves the extent to which development is influenced by increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more nature and by nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s successfully an individual resolves each crisis, the healthier biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental development will be. experiences. TRUST VERSUS MISTRUST - - epigenetic view - development reflects an ongoing, development of trust during bidirectional interchange between genes and the infancy sets the stage for a environment. lifelong expectation that the ❖ STABILITY AND CHANGE world will be a good and - involves the degree to which early traits and characteristics pleasant place to live persist through life or change. AUTONOMY VERSUS SHAME - stability is the result of heredity and possibly early experiences AND DOUBT - (1 to 3 years) in life. infants begin to discover that - plasticity, the potential for change, exists throughout the life their behavior is their own; span, although possibly to different degrees assert their sense of ❖ CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY independence or autonomy - the degree to which development involves either gradual, INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT - cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages preschool years; preschool (discontinuity). children encounter a - Continuity - as the oak grows from seedling to giant oak, it widening social world, they becomes more of an oak— its development is continuous face new challenges that - Discontinuity - as an insect grows from a caterpillar to a require active, purposeful, chrysalis to a butterfly, it passes through a sequence of stages responsible behavior; feelings in which change is qualitatively rather than quantitatively of guilt may arise different. INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY - elementary school years; III. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT elementary school years SCIENTIFIC METHOD - An approach that can be used to obtain IDENTITY VERSUS IDENTITY accurate information. It includes the following steps: (1) CONFUSION - individuals conceptualize the problem, (2) collect data, (3) draw conclusions, need to find out who they and (4) revise research conclusions and theory. are, what they are all about, THEORY - An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and where they are going in phenomena and facilitate predictions. life HYPOTHESES - Specific assumptions and predictions that can be INTIMACY VERSUS ISOLATION - tested to determine their accuracy. early adulthood; individuals PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES - Theories that describe development face the developmental task as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior of forming intimate is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the relationships. mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early GENERATIVITY VERSUS experiences with parents are emphasized. STAGNATION - middle adulthood; generativity - Erikson means primarily a concern for helping the younger generation to 3 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) develop and lead useful lives; having done nothing to help the - behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to next generation is stagnation recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR - a person reflects on the past; life less likely to recur review reveals a life well spent, integrity will be achieved; if not, - rewards and punishments shape development. the retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom—the - development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes despair. that are brought about by rewards and punishments. - Like Freud, Erikson proposed that individuals go through ❖ BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY - see cognition as important distinct, universal stages of development. Thus, in terms of the in understanding development continuitydiscontinuity issue discussed in this chapter; both - holds that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key favor the discontinuity side of the debate. factors in development - emphasizes that cognitive processes have important links with COGNITIVE THEORIES the environment and behavior ❖ PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY - Theory stating that - early research program focused heavily on observational children actively construct their understanding of the world and go learning (also called imitation or modeling), which is learning through four stages of cognitive development. that occurs through observing what others do. ETHOLOGICAL THEORY ❖ ETHOLOGY - stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods - the presence or absence of certain experiences has a long- lasting influence on individuals - IMPRINTING—the rapid, innate learning that involves attachment to the first moving object seen - John Bowlby stressed that attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the life span.; if this attachment is positive and secure, the individual will likely develop positively in childhood and adulthood. If the attachment is negative and insecure, life-span development will likely not be optimal. We will explore the concept of infant attachment in much greater detail later in this edition ECOLOGICAL THEORY - emphasizes environmental factors. ❖ BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY - development reflects the influence of several environmental systems FIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS: 1. MICROSYSTEM is the setting in which the individual lives. 2. MESOSYSTEM involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. 3. EXOSYSTEM consists of links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context 4. MACROSYSTEM involves the culture in which individuals live 5. CHRONOSYSTEM consists of the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, ❖ VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL COGNITIVE THEORY - a sociocultural as well as sociohistorical circumstances. cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. - Vygotsky portrayed the child’s development as inseparable from social and cultural activities - cognitive development involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies. ❖ THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY - individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. - does not describe development as stage-like, instead, individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES ❖ BEHAVIORISM - holds that we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured. - behavioral and social cognitive theories emphasize continuity in development and argue that development does not occur in stage-like fashion. ❖ SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING - through operant conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence 4 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) ❖ ECLECTIC THEORETICAL ORIENTATION - An orientation that does not CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it. I. THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE NATURAL SELECTION AND ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR ❖ NATURAL SELECTION - the evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and leave the most fit offspring ❖ EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY - Emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior. II. GENETIC FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT THE COLLABORATIVE GENE ▪ CHROMOSOMES - Threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, with one member of each pair coming from each parent. Chromosomes contain the genetic substance DNA. ▪ DNA - A complex molecule that contains genetic information. ▪ GENES - Units of hereditary information composed of DNA. Genes help cells to reproduce themselves and help manufacture the proteins that maintain life. ❖ MAJOR APPROACHES TO GENE IDENTIFICATION AND DISCOVERY: GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION METHOD – used to identify genetic variations linked to a particular disease, such as obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease, or Alzheimer disease LINKAGE ANALYSIS – used to discover the location of a gene (or genes) in relation to a marker gene (whose position is already known), is often used to search for disease-related genes NEXT-GENERATION SEQUENCING – used describe the vast increase in genetic data generated at a much-reduced cost and in a much shorter period of time than in the past. THOUSAND GENOMES PROJECT - most detailed study of human genetic variation to date; has the goal of determining the genomic sequences of at least 1,000 individuals from different ethnic groups around the world GENES AND CHROMOSOMES ▪ MITOSIS - Cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus duplicates itself with two new cells being formed, each containing the same DNA as the parent cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes ▪ MEIOSIS - A specialized form of cell division that occurs to form eggs and sperm (also known as gametes). ▪ FERTILIZATION - A stage in reproduction when an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote ▪ ZYGOTE - A single cell formed through fertilization. ❖ SOURCES OF VARIABILITY ▪ Identical twins (also called monozygotic twins) develop from a single zygote that splits into two genetically identical replicas, each of which becomes a person. ▪ Fraternal twins (called dizygotic twins) develop when two eggs are fertilized by different sperm, creating two zygotes that are genetically no more similar than ordinary siblings ▪ SUSCEPTIBILITY GENES - those that make the individual more vulnerable to specific diseases or accelerated ▪ LONGEVITY GENES - those that make the individual less vulnerable to certain diseases and more likely to live to an older age ▪ GENOTYPE - A person’s genetic heritage; the actual genetic material ▪ PHENOTYPE - The way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics GENETIC PRINCIPLES ❖ DOMINANT-RECESSIVE GENES - one gene of a pair always exerts its effects (dominant) and overrides the potential influence of the other gene (recessive gene). ❖ SEX-LINKED GENES - e. When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome, the result is called X-linked inheritance ❖ GENETIC IMPRINTING - occurs when the expression of a gene has different effects depending on whether the mother or the father passed on the gene 5 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) - A chemical process “silences” one member of the gene pair ❖ GENE-GENE INTERACTION - used to describe studies that focus on ❖ POLYGENIC INHERITANCE - many different genes determine a the interdependent process by which two or more genes influence characteristic characteristics, behavior, diseases, and development - Even a simple characteristic reflects the interaction of many genes as well as the influence of the environment CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE-LINKED ABNORMALITIES ❖ GENE-LINKED ABNORMALITIES III. REPRODUCTIVE CHALLENGES AND CHOICES ❖ CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING - a prenatal medical procedure in PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS which a small sample of the placenta (the vascular organ that links ❖ ULTRASOUND SONOGRAPHY - is a prenatal medical procedure in the fetus to the mother’s uterus) is removed which high-frequency sound waves are directed into the pregnant ❖ AMNIOCENTESIS - is a prenatal medical procedure in which a woman’s abdomen sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe and tested for ❖ BRAIN-IMAGING TECHNIQUES - MRI, which stands for magnetic chromosomal or metabolic disorders resonance imaging, uses a powerful magnet and radio images to ❖ MATERNAL BLOOD SCREENING - identifies pregnancies that have an generate detailed images of the body’s organs and structures elevated risk for birth defects such as spina bifida 6 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) - measures three substances in the mother’s blood. embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear. INFERTILITY AND REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY EMBRYO - mass of cells ❖ INFERTILITY - the inability to conceive a child after 12 months of ENDODERM - the inner layer of cells, which will develop regular intercourse without contraception into the digestive and respiratory systems. ❖ IN VITRO FERTILIZATION (IVF) - eggs and sperm are combined in a MESODERM - the middle layer, which will become the laboratory dish. If any eggs are successfully fertilized, one or more of circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and the resulting zygotes is transferred into the woman’s uterus reproductive system - A meta-analysis revealed that twins conceived by in vitro ECTODERM - the outermost layer, which will become the fertilization have a slightly increased risk of low birth weight nervous system and brain, sensory receptors (McDonald & others, 2010) and another meta-analysis found AMNION - The part of the prenatal life-support system that that in vitro fertilization singletons have a significant risk of low consists of a sac containing a clear fluid in which the birth weight developing embryo floats. IV. HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION: THE NATURE-NURTURE UMBILICAL CORD - Part of the prenatal life-support system DEBATE that contains two arteries and one vein that connect the BEHAVIOR GENETICS - field that seeks to discover the influence of baby to the placenta. heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits PLACENTA - A prenatal life-support system that consists of and development a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels - does not identify the extent to which genetics or the from the mother and offspring intertwine. environment affects an individual’s traits. ORGANOGENESIS - Organ formation that takes place - to figure out what is responsible for the differences among during the first two months of prenatal development. people—that is, to what extent people vary because of ❖ FETAL PERIOD - Lasting about seven months, the prenatal differences in genes, environment, or a combination of these period between two months after conception and birth in factors typical pregnancies. ❖ TWIN STUDY - A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical ❖ BRAIN DEVELOPMENT - One of the most remarkable aspects of twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins. the prenatal period ❖ In an adoption study, investigators seek to discover whether the − neurons spend time moving to the right locations and are behavior and psychological characteristics of adopted children starting to become connected are more like those of their adoptive parents, who have provided a − neurons Nerve cells that handle information processing at home environment, or more like those of their biological parents, the cellular level in the brain. who have contributed their DNA − FOUR IMPORTANT PHASES of the brain’s development during the prenatal period: HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS 1. NEURAL TUBE - the nervous system begins forming as ❖ THREE WAYS THAT HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT CAN BE CORRELATED a long, hollow tube located on the embryo’s back 1. PASSIVE GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - → forms at about 18 to 24 days after conception, Correlations that exist when the natural parents, who are develops out of the ectoderm genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment → tube closes at the top and bottom ends at for the child. about 27 days after conception 2. EVOCATIVE GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - 2. NEUROGENESIS - generation of new neurons; process Correlations that exist when the child’s genetically influenced that continues through the remainder of the characteristics elicit certain types of environments. prenatal period but is largely complete by the end 3. ACTIVE (NICHE-PICKING) GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT of the fifth month after conception CORRELATIONS - Correlations that exist when children seek out 3. NEURONAL MIGRATION - 6 to 24 weeks after environments, they find compatible and stimulating. conception; s involves cells moving outward from THE EPIGENETIC VIEW AND GENE × ENVIRONMENT (G × E) their point of origin to their appropriate locations and INTERACTION creating the different levels, structures, and regions ❖ EPIGENETIC VIEW - Emphasizes that development is the result of an of the brain ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and 4. NEURAL CONNECTIVITY - 23rd prenatal week, environment connections between neurons begin to occur, a ❖ F GENE × ENVIRONMENT (G × E) INTERACTION—the interaction of a process that continues postnatally specific measured variation in DNA and a specific measured TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT aspect of the environment ❖ TERATOGEN - From the Greek word tera, meaning “monster.” Any CHAPTER 3: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH agent that causes a birth defect. The field of study that investigates I. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT the causes of birth defects is called teratology. THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT ❖ INFLUENCES: ❖ GERMINAL PERIOD - The period of prenatal development that a. DOSE. The dose effect is rather obvious—the greater the dose takes place in the first two weeks after conception. It includes of an agent, such as a drug, the greater the effect. the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the b. GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY. The type or severity of abnormalities attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. caused by a teratogen is linked to the genotype of the DIFFERENTIATION—specialization of cells to perform pregnant woman and the genotype of the embryo or fetus various tasks—starts to take place by approximately one → The extent to which an embryo or fetus is vulnerable to a week after conception teratogen may also depend on its genotype BLASTOCYST - The inner layer of cells that develops during c. TIME OF EXPOSURE. Exposure to teratogens does more the germinal period. These cells later develop into the damage when it occurs at some points in development than embryo at others TROPHOBLAST - The outer layer of cells that develops in the ❖ PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS act on the nervous system to alter states of germinal period. These cells provide nutrition and support consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods. for the embryo. o Caffeine - a large-scale study of almost 60,000 women ❖ EMBRYONIC PERIOD - The period of prenatal development that revealed that maternal caffeine intake was linked to lower occurs two to eight weeks after conception. During the birth weight and babies being born small for gestational age 7 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) o Alcohol - Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a cluster 2. SECOND STAGE - begins when the baby’s head starts to move of abnormalities and problems that appear in the offspring of through the cervix and the birth canal. It terminates when the mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy baby completely emerges from the mother’s body. o Nicotine - Cigarette smoking by pregnant women can also 3. AFTERBIRTH - The third stage of birth, when the placenta, adversely influence prenatal development, birth, and umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and postnatal development (Shisler & others, 2017). Preterm births expelled. and low birth weights, fetal and neonatal deaths, respiratory ❖ CHILDBIRTH SETTING AND ATTENDANTS problems, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS, also MIDWIVES - a profession that provides health care to women known as crib death) are all more common among the during pregnancy, birth, and the postpartum period; also, may offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy give women information about reproductive health and o Cocaine - cocaine exposure during prenatal development is annual gynecological examinations. associated with reduced birth weight, length, and head DOULA - A caregiver who provides continuous physical, circumference emotional, and educational support for the mother before, o Marijuana - marijuana use by pregnant women also has during, and after childbirth. negative outcomes for offspring; researchers found that ❖ METHODS OF CHILDBIRTH prenatal marijuana exposure was related to lower intelligence MEDICATION in children 1) ANALGESIA is used to relieve pain. Analgesics include o Heroin - infants whose mothers are addicted to heroin show tranquilizers, barbiturates, and narcotics (such as several behavioral difficulties at birth; difficulties include Demerol). withdrawal symptoms, such as tremors, irritability, abnormal 2) ANESTHESIA is used in late first-stage labor and during crying, disturbed sleep, and impaired motor control delivery to block sensation in an area of the body or to ❖ INCOMPATIBLE BLOOD TYPES - Incompatibility between the mother’s block consciousness. and father’s blood types poses another risk to prenatal → An epidural block is regional anesthesia that numbs development the woman’s body from the waist down ❖ ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS - Many aspects of our modern industrial 3) OXYTOCIN is a hormone that promotes uterine world can endanger the embryo or fetus. Some specific hazards to contractions; a synthetic form called Pitocin® is widely the embryo or fetus include radiation, toxic wastes, and other used to decrease the duration of the first stage of labor chemical pollutants NATURAL AND PREPARED CHILDBIRTH ❖ MATERNAL DISEASES and infections can produce defects in o NATURAL CHILDBIRTH - This method of childbirth attempts offspring by crossing the placental barrier, or they can cause to reduce the mother’s pain by decreasing her fear damage during birth through information about childbirth and instruction in ✓ Rubella relaxation techniques to reduce pain during delivery. ✓ Syphilis o PREPARED CHILDBIRTH - Developed by French obstetrician ✓ genital herpes Ferdinand Lamaze, this childbirth strategy is similar to ✓ AIDS - A mother can infect her offspring with HIV/AIDS in three natural childbirth but includes a special breathing ways: (1) during gestation across the placenta, (2) during technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids, and (3) and a more detailed anatomy and physiology course postpartum (after birth) through breast feeding. CESAREAN DELIVERY - baby is removed from the mother’s ❖ OTHER PARENTAL FACTORS uterus through an incision made in her abdomen; performed if MATERNAL DIET AND NUTRITION - A developing embryo or fetus the baby is lying crosswise in the uterus, if the baby’s head is depends completely on its mother for nutrition, which comes too large to pass through the mother’s pelvis, if the baby from the mother’s blood develops complications, or if the mother is bleeding vaginally MATERNAL AGE - When possible harmful effects on the fetus o BREECH POSITION - The baby’s position in the uterus that and infant are considered, two maternal age groups are of causes the buttocks to be the first part to emerge from special interest: adolescents and women 35 years and older. the vagina. The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is ASSESSING THE NEWBORN double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties. ❖ APGAR SCALE - A widely used method of assessing the health of Maternal age is also linked to risk for adverse pregnancy newborns at one and five minutes after birth. The Apgar Scale outcomes. When a pregnant woman is older than 35, there is evaluates an infant’s heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, an increased risk that her child will have Down syndrome. body color, and reflex irritability. EMOTIONAL STATES AND STRESS - When a pregnant woman - especially good at assessing the newborn’s ability to cope with experiences intense fears, anxieties, and other emotions or the stress of delivery and the demands of a new environment negative mood states, physiological changes occur that may affect her fetus PATERNAL FACTORS - Men’s exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides, and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or to diseases such as childhood cancer (Cordier, 2008). The father’s smoking during the mother’s pregnancy also can cause problems for the offspring. II. BIRTH THE BIRTH PROCESS ❖ STAGES OF BIRTH 1. FIRST STAGE - Uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the beginning and last up to a minute. the contractions come closer together, appearing every two to five minutes. ❖ BRAZELTON NEONATAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT SCALE (NBAS) - A Their intensity increases. By the end of the first birth stage, measure that is used in the first month of life to assess the newborn’s contractions dilate the cervix to an opening of about 10 neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and centimeters (4 inches), so that the baby can move from the objects. uterus to the birth canal 8 REVIEW 1 DEVPSY BOOK (OUTLINE) ❖ NEONATAL INTENSIVE CARE UNIT NETWORK NEUROBEHAVIORAL SCALE (NNNS) - An “offspring” of the NBAS, the NNNS provides an assessment of the newborn’s behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities. PRETERM AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT INFANTS ❖ THREE RELATED CONDITIONS POSE THREATS TO MANY NEWBORNS: 1) LOW BIRTH WEIGHT INFANTS - An infant that weighs less than 5 pounds 8 ounces at birth. 2) PRETERM INFANTS - Those born before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time between fertilization and birth). 3) SMALL FOR DATE INFANTS – (small for gestational age infants), these infants’ birth weights are below normal when the length of pregnancy is considered. Small for date infants may be preterm or full term. ❖ NURTURING LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AND PRETERM INFANTS KANGAROO CARE - involves skin-to-skin contact in which the baby, wearing only a diaper, is held upright against the parent’s bare chest, much as a baby kangaroo is carried by its mother III. THE POSTPARTUM PERIOD POSTPARTUM PERIOD - The period after childbirth when the mother adjusts, both physically and psychologically, to the process of childbirth. This period lasts for about six weeks or until her body has completed its adjustment and returned to a near prepregnant state. EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENTS ❖ POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION - A condition experienced by women who have such strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair that they have trouble coping with daily tasks during the postpartum period. BONDING - The formation of a close connection, especially a physical bond, between parents and their newborn in the period shortly after birth. ROOMING-IN ARRANGEMENT - the baby remains in the mother’s room most of the time during its hospital stay