Chapter Five - Developing Through the Life Span PDF

d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Chapter Five Developing Through the Life Span Overview ● Developmental Issues, Prenatal Development, and the Newborn ● Infancy and Childhood ● Adolescence ● Adulthood Developmental Psychology’s Major Issues age Bank/...

d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Chapter Five Developing Through the Life Span Overview ● Developmental Issues, Prenatal Development, and the Newborn ● Infancy and Childhood ● Adolescence ● Adulthood Developmental Psychology’s Major Issues age Bank/Getty Images ● ● ● ● ● ● Nature and nurture How is our development influenced by the interaction between our genetic inheritance and experiences? Continuity and stages What parts of development are gradual and continuous and what parts change abruptly? Stability and change Which of our traits persist and which change through life? Prenatal Development (part 1) ● Zygote: The life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote (fertilized egg). The zygote enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division. ● Embryo: The zygote’s inner cells become the embryo; the outer cells become the placenta. The embryo is the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through 2 months. ● Fetus: In the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function. By 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Prenatal Development (part 3) ● ● ● Prenatal development is not risk free. Teratogen: An agent, such as a chemical or virus, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): Physical and mental abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-ofproportion head and abnormal facial features. d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Infancy and Childhood: Motor Development ● ● ● ● ● Motor skills Develop as nervous system and muscles mature Are primarily universal in sequence, but not in timing Are guided by genes and influenced by environment Involve the same sequence throughout the world age Bank/Getty Images Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development ● ● ● ● Piaget Children are active thinkers Minds develops through series of universal, irreversible stages from simple reflexes to adult abstract reasoning Children’s maturing brains build schemas which are used and adjusted through assimilation and accommodation d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking ● • • • • • • Sensorimotor stage (birth to nearly 2 years) Tools for thinking and reasoning change with development Adaptation Assimilation: Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas Accommodation: Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information Object permanence Awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s SCALE ERRORS Children age 18 to 30 months may fail to take the size of an object into account when trying to perform impossible actions with it. At left, a 21month-old attempts to slide down a miniature slide. At right, a 24-monthold opens the door to a miniature car and tries to step inside (DeLoache et al., 2004). Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking age Bank/Getty Images ● ● ● ● Preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years) Child learns to use language but cannot yet perform the mental operations of concrete logic Conservation Egocentrism/curse of knowledge d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking ● ● ● ● Theory of mind Involves ability to read mental state of others Between 3½ and 4½, children worldwide use theory of mind to realize others may hold false beliefs By 4 to 5, children anticipate false beliefs of friends age Bank/Getty Images PIAGET’S TEST OF CONSERVATION This preoperational child does not yet understand the principle of conservation. When the milk is poured into a tall, narrow glass, it suddenly seems like “more” than when it was in the shorter, wider glass. In another year or so, she will understand that the amount stays the same even though it looks different. Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking age Bank/Getty Images ● ● ● ● ● ● Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) Children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. They begin to understanding change in form before change in quantity and become able to understand simple math and conservation. Formal operational (12 through adulthood) Children are no longer limited to concrete reasoning based on actual experience. They are able to think abstractly. d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Parenting Styles ● ● ● ● Parenting styles reflect varying degrees of control (Baumrind) Authoritative parents tend to have children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence. Permissive parents tend to have children who are more aggressive and immature. Authoritarian parents tend to have children with less social skills and self-esteem. Parenting Styles age Bank/Getty Images ● ● ● ● Culture Cultural values vary from place to place and from one time to another within the same place. Children have survived and flourished throughout history under various child-rearing systems. Diversity in child rearing should be a reminder that no single culture has the only way to raise children successfully. d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Adolescence: Physical Development ● ● ● ● Adolescence is the transition from puberty to social independence. Early maturing boys: More popular, self-assured, and independent; more at risk for alcohol use, delinquency, and premature sexual activity. Early maturing girls: Mismatch between physical and emotional maturity may encourage search for older teens; teasing or sexual harassment may occur. Teens: Frontal lobe development and synaptic pruning occur and may produce irrational and risky behaviors. Adolescence: Cognitive Development age Bank/Getty Images ● ● ● ● ● Developing reasoning power: Piaget Develop new abstract thinking tools (formal operations) Reason logically and develop moral judgment Developing moral reasoning: Kohlberg Use moral reasoning that develops in universal sequence to guide moral actions d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Thinking Adolescence: Social Development age Bank/Getty Images ● Adolescence struggle involves identity versus role confusion-continuing into adulthood. ● Social identity involves the “we” aspect of selfconcept that comes from group memberships. ● Healthy identity formation is followed by a capacity to build close relationships. d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Adolescence: Parent and Peer Relationships ● People seek to fit in and are influenced by their groups, especially during childhood and teen years. Influence of parents and peers is complementary. ● Parents ● ● ● Parent-child arguments increase but most adolescents report liking their parents. Argument content often genderrelated. Peers Peers influence behavior, social networking is often extensive, and exclusion can be painful or worse. What Happens Next? age Bank/Getty Images ● ● ● ● ● Emerging adulthood Includes the time from 18 to mid-twenties in a not-yetsettled phase of life Characterized by not yet assuming adult responsibilities and independences and feelings of being “in between” May involve living with and still being emotionally dependent on parents Found mostly in today’s Western cultures d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Adulthood: Physical Development ● ● ● ● ● ● Early adulthood Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness and cardiac output peak in mid-twenties. Middle adulthood Physical vigor more closely linked to health and exercise than age Physical decline is gradual; gradual decline in fertility Female: menopause; Male: gradual decline in sperm count, testosterone level, erection and ejaculation speed Adulthood: Physical Development age Bank/Getty Images ● ● ● ● ● ● Late adulthood Life expectancy worldwide increased from 46.5 to 70 years; telomeres tips shorten Visual sharpness, distance perception, and stamina diminish; pupils shrink and become less transparent Immune system weakens and susceptibility to lifethreatening disease increases Neural processing lag occurs; brain regions related to memory begin to atrophy; speech slows Exercise slows aging and stimulates brain cell development and neural connections d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Adulthood: Aging and Memory ● Early adulthood is peak time for some learning and memory. ● Middle adulthood shows greater decline in ability to recall rather than recognize memory. ● Late adulthood is characterized by better retention of meaningful than meaningless information, longer word production time. ● End of life is characterized by terminal decline; typically occurs during last four years of life Adulthood: Ages and Stages age Bank/Getty Images • • • • • • • Transitions Midlife transition occurs in early forties Social clock varies from era to era and culture to culture Change events have lasting impact Commitments Intimacy (forming close relationships) Generativity (being productive and supporting future generations) d u f f E v e r t o n / T h e I m a g e B a n k / G e t t y I m a g e s Adulthood: Social Development ● ● Adult’s commitments: Work Work provides a sense of competence, accomplishment, and self-definition for many adults. age Bank/Getty Images Well-Being Across the Life Span ● Positive feelings grow after midlife and negative feelings decline. ● Older adults report less anger, stress, and worry and have fewer social relationship problems. ● Brain-wave reactions to negative images diminish with age. ● At all ages, people are happiest when they are not alone.