Life-Span Developmental Psychology Lecture 3 PDF

Life-span Developmental Psychology Lecture 3  Why does this lecture matter to me? Fifteen-year-old Zack is catching up in physical growth with his female classmates. His mother complains about his need for new, larger shoes every month, despite his clothes still fitting in...

Life-span Developmental Psychology Lecture 3  Why does this lecture matter to me? Fifteen-year-old Zack is catching up in physical growth with his female classmates. His mother complains about his need for new, larger shoes every month, despite his clothes still fitting in size (albeit not in style). Seeing himself as unsuitable for physical competitions and more academically inclined, Zack believes it is more beneficial for him to focus on studying. He is increasingly puzzled by the recent recommendation from the education bureau to play badminton to address sexual urges, even as he becomes more aware of these bodily changes. A lot has been happening in Zack's family. His grandmother just passed away at the remarkable age of 90, prompting him to reflect on his family's tendency towards longevity. At the same time, his 86-year- old grandpa has been diagnosed with macular degeneration and hearing loss. He is also having a problem with the domestic helper, particularly on how bland the meals she cook. On the bright side, amidst these changes, Zack now has a new little cousin to welcome, sparking his search for the perfect gift for the newborn. There is a strong genetic influence in height—> given that u have the potential Body growth and health Genetics – Inherited disease (e.g., celiac disease, endocrine disorders that affect growth hormone production) Environment – Diet, SES, parks in the neighborhood, social values, policy What could have caused these racial and temporal differences in height? Declines in levels of sex hormones are associated with menopause estrogen : development of the breasts, pubic hair, and female sex organs and for the control of menstrual cycles throughout a woman’s reproductive years the endocrine glands secrete the hormones directly to the bloodstream Mother with thyroid deficiency during pregnant may affect the intellectual development of child  Principles of Growth Cephalocaudal principle – From head to toe Head —> trunk—>leg Proximodistal principle chest and internal organs are formed before arms, hands etc. during prenatal period – From core to periphery – Now quite the same for teenagers like Zack Orthogenetic principle – From simple, general to complex, differentiated Development starts globally and undifferentiated and move toward increasing differentiation and hierarchical integration e.g a single cell(during conception) —> differentiate into specialised cells  Toddlers experience a vocabulary spurt following a period of rapid myelination of those parts of the brain involved in language development The Infant’s Brain myelination development also affects attention span Much development taken after birth myelination within the prefrontal lobes during adolescence. Neurons are useless unless they are connected Neurons are ineffective if their connections are a mess removal of unnecessary synapses Synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning An enriched environment tells the brain what it needs and what it doesn’t (e.g., pruning and language acquisition) grey matter : involved in information process Great Plasticity in the Child’s Brain Disadvantage – everything is so not ready Highly vulnerable to damage if it is exposed to drugs or diseases/ deprived of sensory and motor experiences Advantage – you can adapt and learn; environmental input is important Can recover successfully from injuries Structural neglect in institutional care (van Ijzendoorn et al., 2011) – Minimum physical resources – Unstable staffing patterns – Inadequate caregiver-child interactions The critical/sensitive period for brain development : the time when it proceeds most rapidly—> during the late prenatal period and early infancy 7 A life-span developmental model of health: lifelong process as it’s influenced by personal choices over life span determined by both genetic and environmental influences multidimensional (physical, mental, social) involve both gains and losses social historical context (socioeconomic status) congenital malformations : defects that are present at birth —>Down syndrome/ cleft palates health during infancy starts well before birth with prenatal care accident, nutrition and physical activity levels (which are influenced by socio-economic status)influence children’s health and wellness Obesity may also affects the brain function through metabolic syndrome (MeTS and lead to cognitive deficit (permanent or temporary)) heridity poor eating habits inactivity parental behaviours teens do not get enough sleep : decreased motivation teens who sleep less a night or stay up later on the weekends —> report higher levels of depression, irritability and lack of tolerance for frustration  The Infant’s Rapid Growth By age 2, most infants attain half of their eventual adult height – But the growth is saltatory (Lampl & Thompson, 2007) Bones – to be ossified – Wrist bones, fontanelles Muscles – gaining strength Behavior – from reflexes to autonomous actions  Survival reflexes (hv adaptive values): breathing/ eye-blink reflexes These reflexes prepare infants to react to the world and developing autonomous behavior Many of these reflexes are expected to disappear in the first two years. REM sleep important for learning and memory processes—> learn and rob new information these are called primitive reflexes Grasping reflex Babinski Reflex 9  asymmetry and specialisation of functions of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex Lateralization of Brain Functions If one hemisphere is damaged, it may be possible for the other hemisphere to take over the functions lost Lateralization evident at birth – e.g., hand preference Lateralization of brain functions in childhood – Language acquisition and proficiency Hemispheric lateralization is relative, and the child’s brain is still very plastic Control the right side of the body Control the left side of the body – Girl who survived a hemispherectomy understanding spatial information and processing visual-motor information +emotional content 10 of information  Cross-cultural comparison of motor skills Chow, Henderson & Barnet (2001) Comparing motor skills of preschoolers (4 – 6 years) from HK and US HK preschoolers outperformed the US counterparts in fine motor skills with the dominant hand ▪ No such difference for the non-dominant hand 11  Health and Wellness An ecological analysis of factors on health and wellness Genetic make-up (recall epigenetic effect of high-fat diet) Nutrition – Food affordability – Parents’ education level – School’s involvement Physical activity (brain food) – Screen time CDC’s recommendation – more than 60 – Physical education at school minutes of moderate or vigorous physical – Safe parks in the neighborhood activities (MVPA) every day for children – Temperaments (active vs. sedentary) ages 6 through 17 Physical activity enhances cognitive and psychological functioning  What about Hong Kong (2018)? http://www.activehealthykidshongkong.com.hk/en/report_card/2018/Ov erall_Physical_Activity.asp puberty—the processes of biological change that result in an individual’s attaining sexual maturity and becoming capable of producing a child. Grey matter maturation during adolescence the volume of grey matter increases, peaks, and then decreases throughout the teen years – An inverted U curve – Unconnected/ unused neurons are pruned and replaced by myelinated axons (white matter – linearly increasing) – More efficient information processing Family situations can also affect the timing of puberty, girl experience earlier puberty when their family is disrupted by separation of divorce Hypersensitive reward system (limbic system) and a lagging- behind regulatory system (prefrontal cortex) – Risk-taking behaivor 1. part of the brain that involved in regulating self-control has not yet matured 2. Ushers in a period of increased responsiveness to rewards physical and sexual maturation : processes set In motion by the genes and executed by ormones Growth in Adolescence it’s triggered by an increase in the level of growth hormones Growth spurt – Gender difference – Muscle-fat ratio difference – Reverse of the proximal-distal trend height bc industrialised societies have better nutrition and advances in medical care ,higher rates of obesity ad exposure to a wide array of chemicals that alter the hormone production Sexual maturation – Adrenarche, menarche, semenarche (see slide #4) These are hormones – Development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics – The secular trend The historical trend in industrialised societies toward earlier maturation and greater body size  Psychological implications of body changes in puberty Girls – early development can be stressful: self-consciousness, low activity level, distorted body image Boys – early development is welcome (physical advantages over smaller kids) Early versus late development – Early-maturing boys report better adjustment – Early-maturing girls experience more adjustment problems (e.g., anxiety and mood disorders) late-maturing boys and early-maturing girls are especially likely to find the adolescent period disruptive  Cultural experience shape your brain function and brain structure The Adult The adult brain is still developing – Fewer neurons – (Slower) neurogenesis – Lower plasticity – Harder recovery from brain traumas Elderly adults may end up with 5–30% fewer neurons than early adulthood noraml aging is associated with gradual and relatively mild degeneration with the nerves system — some loss of neurons (greater in areas of brain that control sensory and motor activities) Use it or lose it - Protective roles of physical and mental exercises The againg brain may compensate for losses by increased activity in the prefrontal cortex—> older adults may be able to maintain useful cognitive functioning for a longer period of time  Reproductive system menopause had no effect on the women’s levels of anxiety, anger, perceived stress, or job dissatisfaction. The effect of menopause is colored by the meaning it has for the woman, as influenced by her society’s prevailing views of menopause and by her own personal characteristics. From sexual activity to inactivity – Decline in sex hormones (slide #4) can be predicted by a hormone called anti-Mullerian hormone – Menopause for women No longer capable to conceive a child Ending of menstrual cycles Hot flashes Sudden experience of warmth and sweating and follow by cold shiver Hormone replacement therapy and possible side effects by taking oestrogen and progestin compensate for hormones loss at menopause but it shattered in 2002 bc it increase the chances of developing breast cancer and experiencing heart attacks and strokes – Andropause for men decreasing levels of testerone Lower libido, erection problems fatigue and lack of energy, memory problems erectile dysfunction : caused by medical conditions such as diabetes and not by lower hormone production  premenstural syndrome (PMS) bloating, moodiness, breast tenderness and headache during or the days before the menstrual flow premenstrual dysphoric disorder : physical symptoms that associated with the menstrual cycle —> disabling —> disrupting work and relationships programmed theories of aging : aging follows a predictable genetic timetable ; damage or error theories of aging maximum life span : a ceiling on the number of years taht anyone lives Hayflick limit : cells from human embryos could divide only a certain number of times --> telomeres : stretches of DNA that form the tips of chromosomes and that shorten with every cell division--> make cells unable to replicate and causes them to malfunction and die (caused by chronic stress such as that involved in caring for an ill child or a parent with dementia) how to live longer ？ reserachers have established that the enzyme telomerase can be used to prevent the telomeres from shortening and thus keep cells replicating and working lon- ger; telomerase treatments could backfire, however, if they also make cancerous cells multiply more rapidly an individual’s genetic makeup, combined with environmental factors, influences how rapidly he ages and how long he lives compared with other humans. damage or error theories : an accumulation of random damage to cells and organs over the years--> death --> biological aging is about random damage leading error theory : free radicals : toxic and chemically unstable by-products of metabolism -- > reactive with and damaging to other molecules in the body --> cells the function improperly or cease to function --> organism eventually dies Antioxidants : vitamin E and C --> prevent age-related diseases nature and nurture conspiring aging and dying are as much a part of nature's plan **neither of these broad theories of aging has proved to be the explanation **biological and environmental factors interact ti bring about aging and dying --> to produve development successful aging being free of diseases that limit physical and metal skills (free of disease) healthuer group of older man hardly differed frim the younger men aging in the absense of disease had little effect on physiccal and psychological functioning level of education affected longevity and health (qith a college degree lived longer ) physically and mentally active lived longer and healthier those who uses complex vocabulary lived longer too both physical and mental activity along with a positive attitude, can help slow the effectsof aging on both body and brain our health and well being are influenced by an interaction of environmental and genetic factors Osteoarthritis : common joint problem that results from gradual deterioration of the cartilage thtat cushions the bones from rubbing against one another Health and Wellness Common chronic impairments in >70 yo individuals – Sensory loss – Arthritis 43% of elderly men; 54% of elderly women – Hypertension – Degenerative disease a disease in which a serious loss of minerals levaes ythe bones fragile and easily fractured Osteoporosis – Older women more vulnerable – Exercising (use it or lose it) can make a huge difference to middle-aged adults reserve capacity of many organ systems why do we age or die : programmed theories of aging propose that aging follows a predictable genetic timetable : damage or error theories of aging sensation : process by which sensory receptor neurons detect information and transmit it to the brain perception (the interpretation of sensory input) : recognising what you see and understanding what is said to you Sensation Perception Action Neural development sets the foundation for these functions, which are interconnected to each other Three approaches – Constructivists – we learn to perceive – Nativists – we are born to perceive – Ecological approach The environment presents affordances to us = what it has to offer us and how it might be used by us Perception depends on what the environment afford, and how we can react to it perception drives action --> perception provides us with valuable information about what objects in the environment afford scenario : when a round object is coming toward us --> the object affords : the prospect of getting hit in the face if we do not take some action Think – What different affordances does a wall have on a 6-month-old, 12-month- old, a gecko, and a ghost constructivists : perceptions of the world are constructed over time through learning , and we come equipped at birth with functioning sensory systems. But understaning the input coming through our senses requrires interacting with environment and figure out what those sensations mean nativists : perception is not created by interpreting external input, innate capabilities and maturational programs are the. driving forces in perceptual development. They do not need experience to learn how to interpret different retinal images cat by the same object at different distances. The brain automatically undersatnds the meaning of different retinal images created as we move about our world--> it does not require interpretation Gibson's ecological theory : proposes that information important for perception is readily and directly avaliable in the environment : in the to-be-perceived objects contructivists : information needed to interpret ecological approach : the information needed to interpret is avaliable in the current situation Testing the senses of infants at birth, newborns' visual acuity, or the ability to perceive detail is 40 times worse than an adult's but improves across the first month of life --> bc of limitations in visual accomodation : the ability of the lens of the eye to change shape to bring objects at different distances into focus. (it takes 6months to 1 year to see well as adults) Preferential looking Habitation/ dishabituation habituation technique : the same stimulus is rrepeatedly presented until the infant grows bored with what has become familiar and disengages Researchers can measure how long (e.g., how many trials) until an infant becomes bored. They can also measure how distinct a second, new stimulus needs to be in order to recapture the infant’s attention. Operant conditioning 4 months old can be able to distinguish diff shades of the same color infants are able to see what they need to see, a conclusion consistent with Gibson's ecological approach Ecological validity of visual patterns1 month to 1-month- old : focus on the outer contours old and a 6-month-old infants + gaze stuck on the same object 2 months old : explore the interiors of infants are able to orgnaise and impose order ton visual scenes figures thoroughly + able to shift focus 3 months old : form perception : recognise the patternthat constitue an object Infant toys are all very colorful, yet the patterns tend to have high contrast, large shapes, and rather simple patterns. common motion : all parts of an object moves in the same direction --> define wholeness 23  Infants have an innate preference for top-heavy stimuli, or face-like stimuli (why?) One-month-olds and two-month-olds show a big difference of visual attention, with the latter seemingly Top-heavy more interested in interior features of a shape (e.g., stimulus facial details) infants tend to : pay attention to patterns that have large light-dark transition or contour interested in displays taht are dynamic attracted to patterns that are moderately complex/ clear pattern Bottom-heavy stimulus young infants prefer to look at whatever they can see well (eyes are small and neuron receptors are immature ) infants prefer to look at schematic drawings of faces >patterned stimuli/ more visual tracking have information in their upper visual field are more attracted Undifferentiated stimulus infants making sense of the world in motion  Depth Perception size constancy (4months old) : they regconize that an object is of the same size despite changes in its distance from the eyes Depth perception – Kinetic cues (3 months) – Binocular cues and size constancy (4 months) – Monocular cues (5 to 7 months) infants recognise the size of an object even when the onject is presented at different distances and produce different images on the retina Visual cliff – Consistent avoidance of the cliff for crawlers (~6.5 months), but not necessarily fear – Responses can be regulated by social references provided by caregivers slower heart rate is a sign of interest --> on the deep side 2 months old perceived a difference between the deep and shallow sides of the visual cliff but they have not25 yet learned to fear drop-offs  Infants’ Physics – Are infants born with physical knowledge? yes , 4-month-olds watching a moving object disappear behind the left side of a screen seem to expect to see the object reappear from the right side of the screen (Bremner et al., 2005). And 4-month- olds are also surprised when a wide object disappears into a narrow container Constructivism vs. Nativism Intuitive theories – infants seem to distinguish between possible and impossible events early on they come equipped with organised systems of knowledge Babies as young as 4 months seem to be startled by the inconsistent/ impossible event https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hwgo2O5Vk_g  audition plays a powerful role in initiating infants into a social world Hearing better than seeing Hearing is well developed since birth, with signs of prenatal learning of auditory information Sound localization improves in infancy (perception serves action - ecological view) infants prefer thei mother's voice>father's voice even exposed in prenatal period Even fetuses can recognize their mother’s voice (Kilsilevsky et al., 2003) prenatal exposure to music has a lasting effect on brain activity--> auditory experiences --> can shape the neural architecture of the brain midline Morrongiello, 1988 Location of Sound (degrees from the midline) Younger infants may localize the sound at chance level (~50%) Cut-off – correct responses greater or smaller than 50% Older infants can localize sound 28 at a smaller angel  Speech Perception At birth, infants respond indiscriminately to all phonemes – This sensitivity drops as infants are exposed predominantly to their native language – Use it or lose it (synaptic pruning) Clear preference for mother’s voice – mere exposure effect 4-6months after birth , when exposure to certain tastes or flavour seems to influence later acceptance of these flavours--> need long time exposure (3 months or more--> show acceptance) Chemical senses Ganchrow, Steiner, & Daher, 1983 – Newborns who had never been fed reacted differently to sweet, sour, and bitter flavors Taste preference is shaped by early feeding experience (e.g., breastfeeding mothers’ diet) show adventuresome when mother exposed to different foods there are also taste genes --> genetic predisposition--> account for disparity in children and adult's perceprtion of biterness our perception of flavour is highly dependent on how our brains assign meaning to the signals received from our sensory apparatus sense of smell --> olfaction prefer the scent of their own aminiotic fluid / mother's breast milk --> calm help babies and parents to get to know each other the somaesthetic senses : sense of toch, tenperature, and pain + kinesthetic sense of knowing where your body is in relation to other body parts and to the envioronments newborns are sensitve to warmth and cold all major senses begin working before birth and are clearly functioning at birth  So, infants are quite competent since birth What about nurture factors – Visual deprivation – Critical period in kittens (it’s now or never) 1 week of vision deprivation could lead to visual loss – Sensitive period in human children Vision Audition Speech perception https://computervisionblog.wordpress.com /2013/06/01/cats-and-vision-is-vision- acquired-or-innate/ Corrective surgeries for visual and auditory deficits are better done early so that children can catch up with the sensitive period From infants to child : 1. the coupling of perception and action leading to purposeful movement 2. integration of multiple sources of sensory information The Child Locomotion : movement from one place to another, is a vital aspect of development integrate perception with action Gross motor skills – Big muscles (e.g., arms) Whole body limb movements Fine motor skills – Fine muscles, eye-hand coordination (e.g., pick up beads) Cephalocaudal trend Proximodistal trend Advancing from ulnar grasp to pincer grasp is a demonstration of the proximodistal trend of development  rhythmic stereotypes : they moved their bodies in repetitive ways (rocking, swaying, bouncing, mouthing objects ) Repetitive movements observed in infants shortly before a new motor skill emerges. How do motor skills development in children? integration of action with thought as children have to think about how to organise their movements to optimise e.g. crawling : they need to avoid dangers --> gather feedback from motor activity Dynamic systems theory nature (maturation of the central nervous system) and nurture (sensory and motor experience) are both essential and largely inseparable. – Motor development as a self-organizing process of neural maturation, physical growth, muscle strength, and motor skills Modify their motor behaviours in adaptive ways , they learn it in order to achieve their outcomes – Rhythmic stereotypies – infants seem to be micro-adjusting and experimenting different ways of maneuvering the environment They have mastered crawling and are quite fast at it, whereas walking on two legs is hard work and can slow them down So if they have important efficient – It is not a linear process things to do, they might find it more to use their reliable crawling skills than to labor at walking. toddlers walk not because their genetic code programs them to do so but because they learn that walking works well given their biomechanical properties and the characteristics of the environments they must navigate. the emergence of mototr skills is complex and is closely connected to perceptual-cognitive developments Dynamic Systems in Action Newborns show the stepping reflex, as if they are prepared to walk since birth But this reflex disappears around two months old – is it because of some neural regression? Physical change – – Heavier lower body makes it harder to move the legs – Muscle strength and neural development are catching up to control the legs The reflex is elicited as the infant’s lower body is submerged in water, counteracting Would toddlers be able to compensate for the changes in the increased weight their body and their environment? Yes—they adjusted their motor skills to adapt to rapid “growth” of their bodies and to changes in their environment early visual deprivation likely affects the brain in a way that Toddlers also seemed to recognize when the walkway was too steep for safe travel—they either avoided it or prevents infants from developing face processing abilities even when normal scooted down on their bottoms or on the visual input is restored As it turns out, these tumbles help walkers learn which surfaces are safe and which ones may be problematic ir hands and knees. Children naturally adjust their gait and body positions with different weight vests put on them as they explore different terrains vision and touch, as well as vision and hearing, seem to be interrelated early in life. the integration of senses helps babies perceive and respond appropriately to the objects and people they encounter cross-modal perception : recognise through one sense an object familiar through another --> e.g. feeling objects hidden in a bag and identifying what they are by touch alone --> improve through childhood and adolescence Attention : the focusing on perception and cognition on something in particular infants may prefer some sensory stimuli to others orienting system : reacts to events in the environment --> infants focusing system:deliberately seeks out and maintains attention to events --> older child as they grow older : 1. attention span become longer (Children aged 2–3 worked for an average of 18 minutes and were easily distracted, whereas children aged 5–6 often persisted for 1 hour or more. Further improvements in sustained attention occur from ages 5 to 10 as those parts of the brain involved with attention become further myelinated) 2. become more selective in what they attend to (selective attention : delibrately concentrating on one thing while ignoring something else ) --> preschooler : adult-like orienting system but immature focusing system of attention --> children work better without distractions 3. better able to plan and carry out systematic strategies for using their senses to achieve goals -->able to plan and carry out systematic perceptual searches Adolescent : smell gender plays a role in the sense of smell during adolescent and adulthood women sensitivity of odors > men —> hormonal differences (diff levels on detection and interpretation of chemicals that comprise odors) women and men both uses door as a component of mate selection babies and their mothers can recognise one another through smell cultural variation (affect our sensory receptors—> in how we learn to perceive or interpret sensory signals ) differ little in sensory capacities : ability to discriminate degrees of brightness or loudness people of the nonindustralised rainforest could detect lower concentrations olfactory system due to pollution and chemicals in the industralisad group biggest difference : people’s perceptions and interpretations of sensory input apparently develop that capacity more rapidly if our culture provides us with relevant experiences e.g. culture influences naming of odors (in Jahai) —> more variety of word choice  The Adolescent – what else can get better? able to switch attention from one task to another more efficient at ignoring irrelevant information divide their attention more systematically between two tasks Better attention – Orienting system -> Focusing system – Longer attention spans (from minutes to hours; but we have TikTok now) – More selective attention Getting better, but still susceptible to distractions – More systematic attention Split attention and multitasking is usually ineffective hearing : tinnitus耳嗚 taste ‧ slight decline in preference for sweets and an increased sensitivity to and linking of sour tastes ‧ preference for sour tastes/ tolerance for sour tastes is associated with willingness to try new foods and expand food horizons ‧ teenagers are more open to experimenting with foods that may have odd textures --> less tendency to reject new foods  Are the houses identical or different? sense of taste : also determined by chemosensory irritation --. the reaction of your skin(in your month and nose) to certain chemical compounds of foods e.g. tingle from a carbonated beverage + burn from hot peppers taste is also influenced by cognition: you taste what you expect to taste e.g. we may think brighter coloured juices are thought to be tastier than pale ones Longer attention span, more selective attention, more systematic attention  The Adult become noticeable in the 40s Sensory and perceptual capacities decline low level of stimulations can be detected, stimulation below – A rise in sensory threshold the threshold cannot be detected--> sensitivity to very low levels of stimulation is lost have difficulty processing or interpreting sensory – Decline in perceptual skills information e.g. visual search, splitting attention Perceptual performance is better in familiar than in novel situations vision : changes in the pupil : difficulty with reaidng in dim lighting conditions --> need time to adapt to bright lights and back again to drak road (difficulty with night driving ) thickening and increasing rigidity of the lens of the eye : difficult to focus on close objects presbyopia = aging of the eye women experience greater declines in visual acuity than men age-related macular degeneration (AMD) : vision may become blurry and begins to fade from the centre of the visual field the leading cause: may be genetic contribution/ cigarette smoking no cure currently --> but working on stimulationg cells some older adults will experience serious visual problems but others will retain good vision and healthy eyes until well into old age perception : using the senses intelligently and allocating attention efficiently Raised sensory threshold Cooking with grandma – Henry, it’s bland – Grandma, it’s too salty! It’s 10 degrees outside, dress warm! I don’t feel cold Age-Related Changes in Vision https://www.myeyedr.com/eye-health/vision-simulator Implications Self image Accidents and injuries  Attention and visual search perception : using the senses intelligently and allocating attention efficiently continuous conentrationtask : older adults began to use a more cautious stretegy to increase their accuracy when selectively attending to certain stimuli while ignotring others --> elderly falls short of the performance of young adults older adults were slower and less accurate on the more challenging search task elderly people appear to have difficulty inhabiting responses older adults have theri greatest difficulties in processing visual information when the stimulation is novel and when it's complex speech perception : the ability to hear is one requisite for understanding spee ch , and also depends on cognitive processes such as attention and memory older adults typically have more difficulty understanding conversation than younger adults do older adults may recall less information from a conversation that takes placce in a crowded, noisy environment cognitive declines also seem to contribute to declines in speech perception among older adluts after the age of 50, lower frequency sounds also become increasingly difficult to hear the loss os more noticeable among men than women men show detecable hearing losses earlier in life to compensate the difficulties : reading lips and pelying on contextual cues aging of the chemical senses : there is a general decline in sensitivity to taste (older men > older women ) in one study : older adults were less able tahn young adults to reliably recognise a food on the basis of smell and taste older adults tend to prodice kess salivs thsn younger adults --> which saliva facilitates distribution of the chemical molecules older adults do not have difficulty distinguishing degrees if sweetness sensitivity to odors increases from childhood to early adulthood and decline during adulthood --> with age increasing these sensory and perceptual abilities aare highly variable across the entire life span Taste and smell receptors are replaced throughout the life span and influenced by such environmenatl factors (replace in response to injury such as exposure to pollutants) changes in the somasthetic senses : older adults are often less able than younger adults to detect weak sensory stimulation --> threhold increases older people are less sensitive to changes in temperature than younger adults are (unaware of cool and too hot --> increase risk of death in heat waves or cold spells ) older people seem to be no less sensitive to stronger pain THE ADULT IN PERSPECTIVE general declines in neural functioning that affect both perception and cognition these changes do not need to detract from their quality of life hearing impairment is approximately three times as prevalent as visual impairment among older adults presbycusis = problems of the aging ear causes : personal experiences --? societal consequences Hearing Due to degeneration of cochlear hair cells, surrounding structures, and the neurons leading from them to the brain – Result is loss of sensitivity to high-frequency or high-pitched sounds (The hearing test) – After age 50, lower-frequency sounds also become difficult to hear Difficulties in speech perception – Auditory and cognitive declines – How to speak to elderlies? Clear voice, familiar language, remind the context, talk f2f Infants can flail their arms around before they can move their hands and fingers with any precision. This illustrates the _____ direction of growth. a. cephalodistal b. proximodistal c. cephalocaudal d. proximocaudal Which of the following would likely be the most effective approach for a 72- year-old man to protect and enhance his cognitive performance? a. join a weekly mall walkers group b. get a good amount of REM sleep c. eat more berries and vegetables d. read news about current events An adult who has a leg amputated must relearn how to walk with a different distribution of body weight and an attached prosthetic. This process mirrors which of the following? a. locomotor accommodation theory b. dynamic systems theory c. bioecological perception theory d. evoked potential theory Six-month-old Kara watches as two dolls are placed behind a screen. When the screen is removed, Kara sees either two dolls (possible) or one doll (impossible). Which of the following reactions is the infant likely to show? a. Kara will look longer at the impossible outcome than the possible outcome. b. Kara will not look at either outcome because they will have habituated to the original stimulus. c. Kara will look longer at the possible outcome because it is familiar to her. d. Kara will not notice any difference between the possible and impossible outcomes, as evidenced by no difference in looking times at the two outcomes.