Research Design Unit 1 PDF

RESEARCH DESIGN FOR BUSINESS BY:PRACHI SHAH MANAGEMENT UNIT 1 : INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. The word research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that we are taking up an...

RESEARCH DESIGN FOR BUSINESS BY:PRACHI SHAH MANAGEMENT UNIT 1 : INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. The word research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that we are taking up an activity to look into an aspect once again or we want to look for some new information about something. Research is an investigation into a topic or idea to discover new information. For example, research can be as simple as seeking to answer a question that already has a known answer, like reading an article to learn why the sky is blue. MEANING OF RESEARCH A search for knowledge. Research is an art of scientific investigation. A scientific and systematic search for relevant information on a specific topic. Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Research is a movement, a movement from the known to the Unknown. A voyage of discovery. Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.  Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research activity carried out by the each sector or subject to find out solution in general or in particular. The term research composed two words 'Re' and 'Search' which means search again and again. Research can be defined as, systematic investigation into and study of a subject in order to establish facts and arrive at new findings and conclusions. Research is the systematic approach concerning generalization and formulation of a theory. Research is a careful critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principle, diligent investigation in order to ascertain something. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH 1) To find solution to the problem 2) To develop innovative ideas 3) To obtain information 4)To extend the knowledge 5)To apply generalization and general laws 6)To predict events 7)To analyse inter-relationship  OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH 1. To find solutions to problems: Research can be undertaken to find solutions to solve specific problems. For instance, an organisation may initiate research to find solution to the problem of declining sales of their products in the market. An educational institution can undertake research to find out the causes of low attendance or poor results. A government organisation may undertake research to solve the problem of water scarcity in a particular area or district or to ascertain the impact of slums on the quality of life in a particular city, and such other research activities. The research enables to find appropriate solutions to specific problems, which in turn helps to improve the quality of performance in various organisations or institutions. 2. To develop innovative ideas : Research may be undertaken to generate innovative ideas for the welfare of mankind. For instance, research may enable an organisation to develop innovative ideas in respect of:  New and improved products.  Improved organisation structure.  Better technology.  New sources of raw materials, etc. 3. To obtain information: Research is undertaken to obtain information, which may not be easily obtained during the ordinary course of functioning of an institution or an organisation. For instance, marketing research may be undertaken to understand the changes in consumer behaviour. A firm may undertake product research to bring about improvement or modification in the existing product on the basis of feedback obtained from consumers, dealers and others. 4. To extend knowledge: Researchers undertake research to extend the existing knowledge in physical sciences (such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, etc.,) as well as in social sciences (like sociology, management, psychology, etc.). The knowledge can be enhanced by undertaking research in general and by fundamental research in particular. 5. To establish generalizations and general laws: Research can be undertaken to establish generalizations and general laws in a particular society. In other words, statements of generality can be stated through research. For instance, various laws, principles and models have been developed through research. The AIDA (attention, interest, desire, and action) model, the law of demand and supply, the law of gravitation, etc., have been developed through observation, experimentation, and other methods of research. 6. To predict events: Research may be undertaken to predict future course of events, For instance, research may be undertaken to find out the impact of growing unemployment of educated youth on the social life of the society in future. The findings of such research would not only indicate the possible impact, but also would make the concerned authorities to take appropriate measures to reduce unemployment, to reduce the growth of population, and to overcome the negative consequences, as and when they take place. 7. To analyse inter-relationships: Research may be undertaken to analyse inter-relationships between variables, so as to derive causal explanations, which in turn would enable to have a better understanding of our society and the universe in which we live. Researchers often develop hypotheses and test them to analyse the causal relationship between variables.For example, a researcher may study causal relationship between advertising and sales, i.e. to find out whether or not advertising causes (results) higher sales. TYPES OF RESEARCH 1) Basic research is also called as pure or fundamental research. It is undertaken to develop a theory or a body of knowledge. The main goal of basic research is to expand man's knowledge. In basic research, there is no commercial angle. For instance, basic research can be undertaken to study the origin of the universe. research is designed to help researchers better understand certain phenomena in the world. It looks at how things work but does not seek to find how to make them work better. This research attempts to broaden your understanding and expand scientific theories and explanations. Example: A company studies how different product placements affect product sales. This study provides information and is knowledge-based. 2) Applied research Applied research is designed to identify solutions to specific problems or find answers to particular questions. It offers knowledge that is applicable and implementable. Applied research is a scientific study to solve practical problems rather than acquiring knowledge Psychologists working in human factors or organizations undertake applied research. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It is generally used to handle a particular situation or to solve a particular problem. For instance, a social research scholar may undertake research to find out job satisfaction of college teachers affiliated to University of Mumbai. The research findings can be applied by colleges or the University to improve the level of job satisfaction of the teachers. Also, a research can be undertaken to study the job satisfaction of nurses in Govt. hospitals vis- à- vis private hospitals in the city of Mumbai. The research findings can be used by Govt. hospitals and private hospitals to improve the job satisfaction levels of the nurses. The applied research can be undertaken by business organisations as well. For instance, a business organisation may undertake applied research to find out the causes of poor sales of a particular brand in the market. The research findings can be used to design necessary measures to overcome the problem of poor sales. 3) Empirical Research: Empirical Research can be defined as "research based on observation or Experience ". Empirical research is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience or experience. Such research is conducted to test a hypothesis. The word empirical means information gained by experience, observation, or experiment. The central theme in scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical which means it is based on evidence. In scientific method the word "empirical" refers to the use of working hypothesis that can be tested using observation and experiment. Empirical evidence (based on one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively. Through quantifying the evidence, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected. Research design varies by field and by the question being investigated. Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis to better answer questions which cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social sciences. 4) Historical research Historical research involves examining past events to draw conclusions and understand the present and future implications of those events. This research method relies on a variety of sources such as documents, artifacts, records, and other historical data. It aims to reconstruct the past as accurately as possible, often considering the cultural, social, political, and economic contexts of the time. Shortcomings Historical data is incomplete and vulnerable to time (documents can be destroyed by wars or over time) It can also be biased and corrupt (e.g. diaries, letters, etc. are influenced by the person writing them) Historical research is a complex and broad category 5)Explorative Research It is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which researcher has little or no knowledge. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypothesis rather than their testing. Some examples of Exploratory Research are: Focus Groups, Internet Communities, among others. Some question we often solve are: Do users understand our value proposal? What people think of our product? Why are sales increasing/declining/flat? Exploratory research manifest with something new in the domain or concept. The exploration facilitates further thinking in different perspective. It may also facilitate the discussions and debates which are well explained and tested using descriptive research design. Feature of exploratory research design is, it is very flexible because, no one can predict as to how much time the exploration would require. Resources required for exploratory research design could not be limited. it is very flexible because, no one can predict as to how much time the exploration would require. Resources required for exploratory research design could not be limited. Characteristics of Exploratory Research: 1. Exploratory research is flexible and very versatile. 2. For data collection structured forms are not used. Search 4. Cost incurred to conduct study is low. 3. Experimentation is not a requirement. 5. This type of research allows very wide exploration of views. 6. Research is interactive in nature and it is open ended. 6. Descriptive Research: The major purpose of descriptive research is a description of the state of affairs, as it exists at present. In social science and business research, the term often used is ex-post facto research. The researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report what has happened or what is happening. What is the descriptive type of research is recommended to understand defined problems in which we need to expand our knowledge. For instance, a researcher may report on the absenteeism in a particular organisation or several organisations in a particular industry or even in different industries. Details can be given for a particular period - in terms of the total number of absentees, the number of days which the employees have remained absent, the department or section in which there is more absenteeism, the class of employees who remain absent the most, and such other details. The research will not indicate why the employees remained absent. Another example of descriptive research is in respect of the study to understand the general pattern of buying behaviour of consumers during a particular season or in general throughout the year - the quantity of purchases, the frequency of purchases, the type of purchases, and so on. This research will not provide answers as to why (reasons) the customers buy certain quantity or quality or the reasons for low/high frequency of purchases, and so on. 7)EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH/CASUAL RESEARCH Experimental research is designed for establishing causal relationships. It begins with a question concerning the relationship between two or more variables.(A variable is a characteristic or feature that varies, or changes within a study. The opposite of variable is constant: something that doesn't change. Variable In math, the symbols "x", "y" or "b" represent variables in an equation, while "pi" is a constant.) Simultaneously, the researcher develops one or more hypotheses to state the nature of expected relationship. The experiment is the event planned and carried out by Then researcher tries to get evidence. ✓ The application of experimental method yielded better results in physical sciences. Therefore, this method was soon applied to other sciences like biological sciences and medicine. In its simplest form, an experiment has three characteristics as follows: An independent variable is manipulated. ✓ All other variables except the independent variables are held constant. ✓ The effect of manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed. For example, to examine the effect of different teaching methods upon achievement in reading, an investigator would manipulate method, the independent variable, by using different teaching methods in order to ascertain their effect upon achievement, the dependent variable. CONCEPT IN RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic. Quantitative research is the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. Collection & analysis of data ✓ From questionnaire, survey (assume world to be stable so can be measured The three major focus areas are individuals, societies and cultures, and language and communication. Characteristics: Numeric: Represented in numbers, such as counts, percentages, or measurements. Objective: Less influenced by personal biases and interpretations. Structured: Collected in a structured manner, often using predefined categories or scales. Statistically Analyzable: Suitable for statistical tests and mathematical modeling. An economist might analyze economic indicators to forecast market trends. Daily Step Count: A fitness tracker records the number of steps a person takes each day. Data points like 10,000 steps on Monday, 8,500 on Tuesday, and 12,000 on Wednesday are quantitative data. This information can be used to analyze trends in physical activity, set fitness goals, and track progress over time. Applications:Testing hypotheses and theories. Establishing patterns and relationships. Making predictions and generalizations QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Definition: Qualitative data is non-numeric and is used to describe qualities or characteristics. It provides insights into the underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations for behaviors and experiences. Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood. Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. ✓ It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the ✓ direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives. ✓ Non-numeric - like observation, interview (since perspective of people differs) ✓ Narrative description and field focused Characteristics: Descriptive: It is descriptive in nature and often collected through interviews, observations, and open- ended surveys. Subjective: It relies on interpretation and can vary from one person to another. Rich in Detail: Provides in-depth insights and a deep understanding of the context. Textual or Visual: Can be in the form of text (e.g., interview transcripts, field notes) or visuals (e.g., photographs, videos). Qualitative data Examples: A researcher studying workplace culture might conduct in-depth interviews with employees to understand their experiences and perceptions. A sociologist might observe community interactions to explore social dynamics and relationships Patient Experiences: In a study on healthcare quality, patients describe their experiences with medical treatment. Comments like "The doctor was very attentive and took the time to explain my condition" or "I felt rushed and didn't get to ask all my questions" provide qualitative data that can be used to assess and improve patient care practices. Applications: Exploring new areas of research. Understanding complex phenomena. Developing theories and frameworks. APPROACHES TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Focus groups Direct observation In-depth interviews Narrative research Phenomenology  In this method, a researcher brings together a small number of subjects to discuss the topic of interest. The group size is kept deliberately small so that the members express themselves more openly and Focus groups: also get more time as well. The data are collected by an external observer. Direct observation is a fundamental approach in qualitative research where researchers observe participants in their natural settings to gather firsthand Direct observation: information about behaviors, interactions, and phenomena of interest. This method involves the researcher immersing themselves in the environment being studied, often over an extended period, to capture authentic and context-rich data. In-depth interviews It is unstructured and has face-to-face interviews. This approach involves conducting detailed, one- on-one conversations with individuals or small groups, aiming to delve deeply into their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Narrative research Narrative research is a qualitative research method that involves the collection and interpretation of personal stories to understand how individuals make sense of their experiences and the world around them. It focuses on the ways people create meaning through narratives or stories, emphasizing the context and the subjective nature of human experiences. Phenomenology It is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. Phenomenology is a type of research that seeks to explain the nature of things through the way people experience them. For example, interviewing the wives of 10 prisoners of war and asking them to describe their experience For eg research is conducted to study the lived experience of being homeless people Ethnography It is the process of studying and describing a culture (a culture is the shared attitudes, values, norms, practices, language, and material things of a group of people).It intends to provide an insider's picture of a community under study. A researcher may go and live in that specific community and study the culture and their educational practices. A classic example of ethnographic research would be an anthropologist traveling to an island, living within the society on said island for years, and researching its people and culture through a process of sustained observation and participation. Case study research is a methodological approach used in social sciences and other disciplines to deeply investigate a particular phenomenon within its real-life context. It involves in-depth exploration and analysis of a single case (such as an individual, group, event, or organization) to understand its complexities and dynamics. Researchers often gather qualitative data through various methods like interviews, observations, and document Case study research: analysis to provide rich, detailed insights into the case under study. Case studies are valued for their ability to provide contextualized understanding and to generate hypotheses for further research. Case Study Title: "Impact of Digital Marketing on Small Business Growth “ Case Description: This case study explores how a small local bakery (XYZ Bakery) utilized digital marketing strategies to expand its customer base and increase sales over a two-year period. Content analysis is also known as text analysis, this method is a bit different from other qualitative research methods. It is used to analyze the social life by decoding words, texts, Content analysis etc., through any available form of documentation. The researcher studies and understands the context in which the documents are furnished with the information and then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. In modern times, researchers follow activities on a social media platform and try to understand the pattern of thoughts. The researcher studies and understands the context in which the documents are furnished with the information and then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. In modern times, researchers follow activities on a social media platform and try to understand the pattern of thoughts Eg: Imagine you want to find out how people feel about a new movie by looking at Twitter. Collect Data: Gather a bunch of tweets about the movie. Identify Themes: Decide what feelings or opinions you're looking for. For example, positive (happy, excited), negative (bored, disappointed), and neutral. Read and Categorize: Go through each tweet and label it with one of your themes. Tweet 1: "The movie was amazing! I loved every minute." (Positive) Tweet 2: "It was okay, not the best I've seen." (Neutral) Tweet 3: "I was bored the whole time." (Negative) Count and Analyze: Count how many tweets fall into each category. Positive: 40 tweets Neutral: 20 tweets Negative: 30 tweets APPROACHES TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Approaches to Quantitative research 1) Longitudinal study 2) Cross sectional study Longitudinal Study: Definition: Longitudinal research involves studying the same subjects over an extended period to observe changes or trend Methodology: Researchers collect data at multiple points in time, which allows them to analyze patterns of stability, growth, or decline within individuals or groups. Example: A study tracking the academic performance of students from elementary school through college to understand how early educational experiences impact long-term outcomes across time. Cross-sectional study A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which you collect data from many different individuals at a single point in time. In cross-sectional research, you observe variables without influencing them. Researchers in economics, psychology, medicine, epidemiology, and the other social sciences all make use of cross-sectional studies in their work. Example: You want to know how many families with children in New York City are currently low-income so you can estimate how much money is required to fund a free lunch program in public schools. Because all you need to know is the current number of low-income families, a cross-sectional study should provide you with all the data you require. Imagine researchers want to find out how many people in a town drink coffee regularly. They go to different neighborhoods in the town and ask a sample of adults whether they drink coffee and how often they do. They collect all this information over a week and then analyze it to see what proportion of adults in the town are regular coffee drinkers at that time. In this study: Timing: The data is collected over a specific period (one week). Sample: They ask a variety of adults in different parts of the town. Goal: To figure out how many adults drink coffee regularly during that week. Analysis: They calculate the percentage of people who reported drinking coffee regularly based on the survey data collected. Types of Variables 1) Independent Variable 2) Dependent variable 3) E xtraneous variable 4) Control group TYPES OF VARIABLE 1) Independent variable An independent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure. For example, someone's age might be an independent variable. Other factors (such as what they eat, how much they go to school, how much television they watch) aren't going to change a person's age. In fact, when you are looking for some kind of relationship between variables you are trying to see if the independent variable causes some kind of change in the other variables, or dependent variables. These variables are measured along a continuum. Examples include age, income level, temperature, or time spent studying. For example, if someone were studying the effect of different dosages to treat symptoms, the independent variable would be the dose. When you are searching for relationships between variables, you are trying to see if the independent variable causes some kind of change in the dependent variable. The independent variable can be a “treatment” (such as a drug dosage), a “risk factor” (such as diet), an intervention, or a predictor (such as weight or age). The independent variable could be a natural difference (such as gender), or it could be varied by the researcher intentionally. Independent variables: ▪Type of background music (e.g., chart music, dance/electronic music, easy listening, classical music, etc.) ▪Loudness of background music (e.g., low, medium, high volumes, etc.) ▪Time of day when the background music was played (e.g., morning, afternoon, night, etc.) Dependent variable Just like an independent variable, a dependent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is something that depends on other factors. For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it could change depending on several factors such as how much you studied, how much sleep you got the night before you took the test, or even how hungry you were when you took it. Usually when you are looking for a relationship between two things you are trying to find out what makes the dependent variable change the way it does. When you are searching for relationships between variables, you are trying to find what makes the dependent variable change. The dependent variable is sometimes called the “response,” the “symptoms”, or the “outcome”. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Independent variable Dependent variable Independent variable is one whose Dependent variable refers to a values are deliberately changed by variable which changes its values in the researcher in order to obtain a order to reciprocate change in the desired outcomes. values of independent variable. Presumed cause Observed effect Manipulated by the researcher. Measured by the researcher Denoted by “X” Denoted by ”Y” EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE In an experiment, an extraneous variable is any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research study. If left uncontrolled, extraneous variables can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the relationship between independent and dependent variables. Extraneous variables that could also affect the dependent variable: ▪Employee tiredness ▪Employee motivation ▪Job satisfaction Extraneous variables may relate to individual differences (e.g., existing employee task performance, employee age and gender, etc.), the environment in which the study is conducted (e.g., the climate inside the packing facility, especially if the facility is not air conditioned/heated; the weather outside, which could affect employee mood, etc.), as well as factors relating to the independent variable (e.g., type of music, loudness of music, time of day), and the dependent variable (e.g., employee tiredness - number of shifts - employee motivation, job satisfaction, etc.), as we have discussed. CONTROL VARIABLE The variable that are not measured/manipulated in a particular study must be held constant,neutralised /balanced or eliminated ,so they will not have a biasing effect on other variables A control variable is anything that is held constant or limited in a research study. It’s a variable that is not of interest to the study’s objectives, but is controlled because it could influence the outcomes. Variables may be controlled directly by holding them constant throughout a study (e.g., by controlling the room temperature in an experiment),  STAGES IN RESEARCH PROCESS Conducting research involves a systematic and organized process that follows specific steps to ensure the collection of reliable and meaningful data. The research process typically consists of the following steps: Step 1. Identify the Research Topic Choose a research topic that interests you and aligns with your expertise and resources. Develop clear and focused research questions that you want to answer through your study. There should be systematic involvement in the subject matter through firsts hand observation. The researcher should get him deeply involved in the subject matter area which he wants to formulate the problem For example, if the researcher wants to conduct a study to know the problems of slum dwellers in a particular city, then it would be better if he visits the relevant slum areas where he wants to conducts the study. He should try to know through first-hand information about the problems of the slum dwellers by conducting preliminary interviews, understanding their living conditions, and other aspects of life. This exercise would help the researcher to frame specific questions to be asked to the respondents. There are a number of approaches to get insight into a topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such as: A preliminary survey Interviews with a small group of people Observational survey 2) Evaluate the literature A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process. It enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem has been found, the investigator or researcher needs to find out more about it. This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about previous research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build consistency between his work and others through a literature review. Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge and helps him follow the research process efficiently Example: Studying the existing studies on the topic of obesity and its related areas in order to make a better understanding of the problem... From review of literature, the researcher would come to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, and if so, then he would try to fill up such gaps through his research work. The review of the literature would also help the researcher to find out whether or not the prevailing theories or reports applicable to the research problem are consistent with each other. 3) Formulation of Hypothesis: This step includes predictions about a probable relationship between the variables that have in mind for the researcher. It is just the assumption that the researcher set before the actual process of research starts. The assumption or fact that we already know is called the null hypothesis (Ho), and the one we need to test is called an Alternative hypothesis (Ha). The primary function of a hypothesis is to bring focus and clarity to the research proposal.... It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it must be based on the research topic. Researchers are able to concentrate their efforts and stay committed to their objectives when they develop theories to guide their work. Eg :Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity If I water plants daily they will grow faster. 4) Preparing the research design: at this stage, the researcher makes an outline of the whole research and answers the questions like what will be the timeline of research, what will be the methods to collect the data and also what type of data is needed to be collected. The research design is the overall plan and structure of the research.... 5) Describe Population Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology is used in the business. In research, the term population refers to this study group. The research topic and purpose help determine the study group. Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the community. In that case, the research could target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or population so that the results may be generalized. 6) Data Collection Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to answer the research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people being studied. Data must be collected from the two categories of researchers. These sources may provide Primary data. Experiment Questionnaire Observation Interview Secondary data categories are: Literature survey Official, unofficial reports An approach based on library resources 7) Data Analysis During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The research findings are reviewed and reported. Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up categories, applying these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing statistical conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods. 8) The Report-writing After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his findings. The report must be carefully composed with the following in mind: The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be on the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and charts if any. Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section should include the study’s scope and limits. Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will follow the introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy. Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken up into sections that are easy to understand. Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text. It’s the final result.  HYPOTHESIS Literal Meaning The word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem. The word meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. An assumption that is made based on some limited evidence collected is known as a hypothesis. It is the beginning point of study that translates research questions into predictions that might or might not be true. It depends on the variables and population used, also the relation between the variables. The hypothesis used to test the relationship between two or multiple variables is known as the research hypothesis. SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS The formulation of a good hypothesis is a difficult task. The value of research is determined by the results/conclusions arrived at after testing the hypothesis. It requires a researcher to be imaginative having good knowledge, deep insight and an analytical mind. The sources that are available with a researcher for deriving a tenable hypothesis are as follows: Hypothesis Properties The properties of the hypothesis are as follows: It should be empirically tested irrespective of being right or wrong. It should establish the relationship between the variables that are considered. It must be specific, clear, and precise. It should possess the scope for future studies and be capable of conducting more tests. It should be capable of testing it in a reasonable time and it must be reliable. 1) Experience and Creativity of the Researcher Both creativity and experience are capable of deriving adequate hypothesis. While working in an environment, a researcher comes across many problems, some of which are serious enough and requires hard work to solve them. For example, a researcher who is working on the 'Classroom Correlates of Effective Teaching' can think of a host of factors such as teacher's mastery over the subject, effective use of teaching skills, decision-making, capability, perception of his competence, perception of student's capacity for better interaction, use of communication skills etc. 2) Background Knowledge- It is necessary for a researcher to be thoroughly familiar with established facts, existing theories and previous researches relating to the problem. The related literature is an important source of hypothesis formulation. It sharpens the perspective of a researcher as to how to hypothesize the relationship among the variables, which aspects of relationship have been already studied and which still remain to be tested. A rich background of knowledge enables the researcher to locate the key association among the variables and to find out the missing data needed to explain a phenomenon. The researcher should have intensive knowledge in the area in which he is carrying out an investigation and should be insightful Hypothesis is the product of considerable speculation and imaginative guess work. It is based partly on known facts and explanations. In formulating hypothesis, rich experiences and profound academic background of a researcher are helpful. Significant researches have not taken place accidentally but are the result of hard work. A researcher must have a rich background knowledge which may enable him/ her to perceive relationships among the variables. 3) Analogies Hypothesis: Nature of Formulation Analogies are a strong source for the formulation of hypothesis and finding out solutions to the problem. Reasoning by analogy is based on similarities and differences between two situations in which a similar or the same phenomenon or event takes place. For example, in a research problem like the 'Studying the Causes of Burn out Tendencies among College Students', the researcher insightfully thinks, "Why were burn out tendencies not found among college students 20-30 years back as they are today?, What has changed them: quality of teaching or quality of leadership?‘ Arguing analogically in this way may lead the investigator to some conclusions which may be used for identifying variables and relationships, which form the basis of hypothesis construction. (College burnout refers to a state of exhaustion students may face when balancing academic performance, extracurriculars,and a new social life) 4) Scientific Theories A systematic review and analysis of theories developed in field of psychology, sociology, political science and even in biological sciences may help the researcher to provide a suggestive base to formulate a hypothesis. For example, a researcher working on 'Modification of Teacher Behaviour' may be benefited by the Skinnerian theory of behaviour shaping. TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS RESEARCH QUESTION NULL HYPOTHESIS Does tooth flossing affect Tooth flossing has no effect on the number of cavities. the number of cavities? Does the amount of text The amount of text highlighted in the textbook has no effect on highlighted in the exam scores. textbook affect exam scores? Does daily meditation Daily meditation does not decrease the incidence of depression decrease the incidence of depression? 2) ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS The alternative hypothesis (Ha) is the other answer to your research question. It claims that there's an effect in the population. Difference Often, your alternative hypothesis is the same as your research hypothesis. In other words, it's the claim that you expect or hope will be true The alternative hypothesis is the complement to the null hypothesis. Null and alternative hypotheses are exhaustive, meaning that together they cover every possible outcome. ✓ They are also mutually exclusive meaning that only one can be true at a time. Alternative hypotheses often include phrases such as "an effect," "a difference," or "a relationship. ✓ When alternative hypotheses are written in mathematical terms, they always include an inequality (usually ≠) ✓ As with null hypotheses, there are many acceptable ways to phrase an alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis (Ha) is the other answer to your research question. It claims that there's an effect in the population. RESEARCH ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS QUESTION ✓ Tooth flossing has an effect on the number of Does tooth flossing cavities. affect the number of cavities? Does the amount of The amount of text highlighted in the textbook has text highlighted in an effect on exam scores the textbook affect exam scores? 3) Directional Hypothesis A directional hypothesis is a researcher's prediction of a positive or negative change, relationship, or difference between two variables in a population. This statement is often supported by prior research, a widely established theory, considerable experience, or relevant literature. For example, students who do proper revision and assignments could score more marks than the students who skipped. Here, we already know the process and its impact on the outcome. This is what we call a directional hypothesis. 4) Complex Hypothesis The complex hypothesis shows the relationship that comes between two or more dependent and independent variables. For example, if you pump petrol in your bike, you can go for long rides, also you become an expert in riding a bike, you explore more places and come across new things. RESEARCH DESIGN MEANING AND DEFINITIONS A research design is defined as "a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It specifies the objectives of the study; the methodologies and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives." -Philips Bernad Research design actually constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of the data."- David & Nachmias "Research design is the plan, structure, strategy and means of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers of research questions. It is a plan or an overall scheme or a programme of research." - John. W. Best Thus it is obligatory for a researcher to undertake research design. The research design is the ground plan for conducting the research investigation. It provides guidelines to researcher to help him to keep a track of his actions and to know that he is moving in the right direction in collecting the data. Whatever may be the nature of research problems, all research designs should contain answers to the following questions: What the study is about? Why the study is undertaken? What are the types of data required? Where data can be found? What techniques of gathering data will be adopted? In which areas, the study will be undertaken? ESSENTIALS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN 1. Focus on Objectives: The research design must focus on the research objectives. The research objectives must be very clear to the researcher as well as to the research staff. The research objectives differ depending upon the type of research. For instance, the research objective of commercial research will be based on commercial angle, and that of social research will have the objective based on social welfare. Example of Commercial Research Objective: To increase market share from current 10% to 20% within a period of 5 years 'Example of Social Research Objective: 'To reduce poverty of the weaker sections.’ 2. Flexibility: The research design should not be rigid. The research design must be flexible depending upon the situation For instance, a research design indicates a particular time frame to complete the research work. But the research staff may not be in a position to collect the relevant data within the time frame. In such a situation, the time frame can be increased. 3. Pilot Study: It is always advisable to conduct a pilot study for finalizing the research design. Pilot study is a research activity undertaken on a small segment of the research universe. The pilot study is conducted to find out whether or not the researcher would be in a position to collect the relevant data from the sources or areas so selected, and whether or not the collected data would be relevant to solve the problem. If the pilot study indicates a favourable response, the researcher may go ahead with the research design. Otherwise, he may make necessary changes in the research design with respect to: Sources of data. Area of data collection. Techniques of data collection, etc. 4) Acceptance: The research design must be acceptable to the persons concerned. For instance: In the case of commercial research, the research design must be acceptable to the higher authorities. This is because; the higher authorities are required to approve it and accordingly sanction the resources to conduct the research activity. In the case of academic research, the research design must be acceptable to the research guide, as he needs to approve the research design before the research activity starts. In case of social research, the research design must be acceptable to the social or other organisations that are going to finance or sponsor the research activity. 5) Suitability: The research design must be suitable to achieve research objectives. Certain factors to be considered while finalizing the research design as follows: The availability of funds. The availability of time. The availability of manpower. The methods of data collection and analysis, etc. Depending upon the funds and other resources, the research may take suitable action. For instance, a researcher may not plan for an exhaustive research work, if there are constraints relating to money, manpower or time. 6. Simplicity: The research design should be simple and easy to understand. The language used in the research design must be clear and simple. Wherever required, research design must be supported by footnotes. Technical jargons must be avoided. The use of simple language would enable the approving authorities to approve the research design and accordingly sanction the funds, especially in the case of commercial research. Simplicity of research design would also enable the research staff to collect the relevant information, and also to analyse the data properly. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN Research design is vital to the researchers, as it enables to collect the right data to achieve the research objectives. The importance of research design is stated as follows: 1. Guidelines to the Researcher: Research design provides guidelines to the researcher in respect of: When to start and when to complete the research work? What data to be collected? From where the data to be collected? How the data to be collected?, etc. The above questions provide necessary guidelines to th researcher. Therefore, the researcher will be able to collect th right data from the right source at the right time. 2) Organizing Resources: Research design facilitates organizing of resources for collecting the data. The resources include: Funds required for collecting the data. The equipments /instruments and materials required to conduct the research (especially in the case of physical sciences like physics, chemistry, etc.) The manpower to collect the data. The research design enables the researcher to make proper arrangement of the resources which in turn will help the researcher to conduct the research effectively, so as to achieve the research objectives. 3. Directions to the Research Staff: The research design provides necessary directions to the research staff. This is because; the research design provides necessary guidelines in respect of : Sources of data. Techniques for collecting data. Area/place where the research is to be conducted. Resources to be utilised. Time frame of research work. Due to the above factors, the researcher can provide proper directions to the research staff, so that they collect relevant data to achieve research objectives. 4) Selection of Techniques: Research design helps to select appropriate techniques both for data collection and data analysis. There are various methods of data collection such as: Survey or Interview Observation Experimentation. For instance, observation method may be used for studying buyers' behaviour. To get feedback from the customers, the firm may use survey or interview method. There are also various methods of data analysis such as: Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode) Time Series (Simple Moving Average, Weighted Moving Average) Correlation Techniques, etc. For instance, to forecast sales, a researcher may use the time series techniques. To judge the effectiveness of advertising, the advertiser or researcher may correlate the increase in advertising expenditure with that of the increase in sales. 5. Collection of Relevant Data: Research design helps to collect the relevant data and that too within a certain time frame. For instance, the research design indicates: The area of research Universe of research Sample size, etc. Therefore, the researcher or his staff will be able to collect niverse and relevant data from the right area, from the proper un from the appropriate number of respondents. 6. Objectives of Research: Research design helps to achieve research objectives. This is because; the researcher will collect the right data at the right time and from the right source. Also, due to the use of proper techniques of analysis the researcher will be able to analyse the data properly, and then take appropriate measures or action, which in turn will help to attain the research objectives. STEPS IN RESEARCH DESIGN 1. Define the Problem: The researcher must clearly define the problem. Clarity of the problem will help the researcher to decide on the research objectives. For instance, in the case of commercial research, the research problem may be stated as Decline in Sales'. Therefore, the objective of the research will be 'To Increase the Sales’. In case of academic research, proper definition of the problem will enable the researcher to develop hypothesis, which needs to be tested with the help of research. 2. Sources of Data: The researcher must decide about the sources of data. The sources of data depend upon the research problem. The sources of data are broadly divided into two groups: Primary sources Secondary sources. Normally, the sources of data can be secondary as they are less time consuming and less expensive. The researcher may consider primary sources, if the problem cannot be solved with the help of secondary data. 3. Techniques of Data Collection: The researcher must decide about the techniques of data collection. The techniques depend upon certain factors: Nature of problem Resources available Time frame, etc. There are various methods of data collection such as interview method, observation method, etc. 4. Decision on Universe: The researcher must state the universe for conducting the research work. Universe refers to the type of population from which the research information can be collected. For example, if the research is conducted on baby foods, then the universe will be mothers with little kids. 5. Sample Size: The researcher must state the sample size. The sample size depends upon certain factors such as time frame, funds availability, nature of problem, etc. For instance, if the Government conducts a census of population, all households in the country will be covered under the sample size. But if it is an academic research, the sample size may be very small, say about 500 respondents. 6. Areas of Data Collection: The researcher must state the areas from which the data to be collected. The selection of area Location of respondents. Nature of problem, Time factor, etc For instance, a company selling only in one local market will conduct research only in that local area. But if the company sells its products throughout the country, then it may select respondents from all over the country. 7) Monitoring of Expenditure: Research design helps to monitor research expenditure. Research design provides guideline regarding the amount of resources or funds to be utilised for research activity. In the case of commercial research, the researcher would get the funds approved from the sanctioning authority. Accordingly, the researcher will utilise the funds as per the research budget. Therefore, there will be proper control 2. over the funds in respect of research activity. 8. Execution of Research Work: Research design helps in timely execution of the research work. This is because; research design indicates the start time and the completion time of research activity. If research design does not indicate the time frame there is every possibility of the research work getting delayed and the researcher may not be able to achieve the objectives 7. Methods of Data Analysis: Depending upon the type of research, the researcher should select the most appropriate method for data analysis. There are various methods of data analysis such as measures of central tendency, time series method, etc. 8. Decision on Resources: The most important decision in research design is in respect of resources required to conduct. research work. Resources include: Physical resources Manpower Money or Funds The researcher should make proper arrangement of resources so that the research is conducted effectively, which in turn will help to achieve the research objectives. 9. Period/Time frame of Research: The researcher has to make an important decision regarding the time frame of the research activity. Time frame depends upon certain factors such: availability of funds, availability of manpower, type of research, etc. For instance, in the case of highly complicated research, the researcher may require a longer time frame to conduct the research activity, and vice versa. CURRENT TRENDS IN RESEARCH 1)MONODISCIPLINARY RESEARCH Mono means one. So mono-disciplinary research refers to research within a single discipline or body of specialized knowledge (such as medical versus dental) Monodisciplinary research refers to research conducted within a single discipline, focusing on a specific field of study without integrating perspectives, methods, or knowledge from other disciplines. This type of research typically involves in-depth exploration and expertise within one area, allowing researchers to develop a deep understanding and advanced skills pertinent to that discipline. Examples of Monodisciplinary Research: Engineering: Study: Developing a new type of bridge design using principles of civil engineering. Focus: Utilizes engineering concepts and techniques. Sociology: Study: Investigating the patterns of social interaction within a specific community. Focus: Looks at social behaviors and structures.  2)INTER-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH Interdisciplinary research involves integrating approaches, methods, and concepts from different disciplines to address a specific research question or problem. It typically brings together experts from different fields who work together while retaining their disciplinary identities. The aim is to combine insights and methods from various disciplines to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand. Example of Interdisciplinary Research: 1) Improving Public Health Problem: There’s a rise in childhood obesity, and it's a complex issue that affects many aspects of life and health. Disciplines Involved: Nutrition: Experts study what kids are eating and how diet affects health. Psychology: Researchers understand children's behavior and how to encourage healthier habits. Sociology: Looks at social factors like family, community, and school environments that influence children's eating habits and physical activity. Key Characteristics of Interdisciplinary Research: 1.Disciplinary Collaboration: Experts from different fields collaborate but often retain their disciplinary boundaries. 2.Shared Problem Focus: Researchers from various disciplines come together to address a common problem or question. 3.Integration of Insights: Different disciplinary perspectives are integrated to provide a broader understanding. 4.Example: Research on climate change might involve collaboration between meteorologists, economists, and sociologists to understand both the scientific causes and societal impacts. 3)Trans-disciplinary Research Trans-disciplinary research goes beyond integrating knowledge from multiple disciplines to create a holistic approach that addresses complex problems by dissolving the boundaries between disciplines. It involves collaboration among various stakeholders, including academics, practitioners, and the community, to develop comprehensive solutions. Characteristics of Trans-disciplinary Research: 1.Holistic Approach: Combines knowledge, methods, and perspectives from multiple disciplines to address complex problems in a more comprehensive way that cannot be adequately understood or solved from a single disciplinary perspective. 2.Collaboration: Involves cooperation among researchers from different fields, as well as practitioners and community members, to co-create knowledge and solutions. 3.Problem-Oriented: Focuses on real-world problems and seeks to develop practical solutions that can be implemented in various contexts. Limitations of Trans-disciplinary Research: 1.Complexity: Managing and integrating knowledge from multiple disciplines can be challenging and time- consuming. 2.Resource-Intensive: Requires significant resources, including time, funding, and coordination efforts. Education: Develops programs in schools to teach kids about healthy living. Public Health: Creates policies to support healthy food options in communities and schools. Approach: Nutritionists might study the types of food available in schools and recommend healthier options. Psychologists could develop programs that motivate kids to choose these healthier options and be more active. Sociologists might analyze how family and community influence children's eating habits and suggest community-based interventions. Educators can implement health education programs in schools. Public health officials might work on policies that make healthier foods more accessible and affordable. Example: Research on sustainable development might include scientists, policymakers, local communities, and business leaders working together to develop policies and practices that are both environmentally sustainable and socially equitable. Public Health and Epidemiology: In the context of public health crises like pandemics, transdisciplinary research brings together epidemiologists, virologists, healthcare providers, social scientists, economists, policymakers, and community organizations. The goal is to understand not only the medical aspects of disease transmission and treatment but also the social, economic, and behavioral factors that influence public health outcomes. This holistic approach helps develop effective public health interventions that consider both medical and societal impacts. Examples of Trans-disciplinary Research: 1.Public Health: Study: Developing strategies to combat obesity by integrating insights from nutrition, psychology, sociology, and urban planning. Approach: Collaborates with healthcare providers, urban planners, educators, and community members to create effective interventions.