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An Evaluated Understanding of Research Methodology Edition First Author Dr. Rajesh Gupta Iterative International Publishers Title of the Book: An Evaluated Understanding of Research Methodology Edition: First – 2022 Copyright 20...

An Evaluated Understanding of Research Methodology Edition First Author Dr. Rajesh Gupta Iterative International Publishers Title of the Book: An Evaluated Understanding of Research Methodology Edition: First – 2022 Copyright 2022 © Author Dr. Rajesh Gupta, MBA, B.B.A. (Hons.) & Ph.D, Associate Professor, Department of Management, Bansal Institute of Science and Technology Bhopal. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owners. Disclaimer The author is solely responsible for the contents published in this book. The publishers or editors don’t take any responsibility for the same in any manner. Errors, if any, are purely unintentional and readers are requested to communicate such errors to the editors or publishers to avoid discrepancies in future. ISBN: 978-1-68576-360-2 MRP: 685/- Publisher, Printed at & Distribution by: INSC International Publishers Pushpagiri Complex, Beside SBI Housing Board, K.M. Road Chikkamagaluru, Karnataka. Tel.: +91-8861518868 E-mail:[email protected] IMPRINT: I I P Iterative International Publishers ii  Dedicated to All my family members iii  Preface The primary goal of writing this book is to acquaint researchers/students with the key concepts and topics to consider while conducting rigorous and effective research. This book is written in simple language with basic examples so that everyone may understand the notion of research methodology. This book is not a replacement for those standard works, but rather a beginning point to assist you to learn the language and finding what you may need to know. In the first chapter, I highlighted the foundations of research technique, such as definition, aims, types of research, research approaches, criteria for effective research, and problems encountered by Indian researchers. In the second chapter, I covered one of the most significant topics: defining research problems. As we all know, "a well-defined problem is half solved," thus if research problems are identified correctly, researchers can easily complete their research task. In the third chapter, I covered research design. Research design is the blueprint for your research activity; it serves as an essential component of any research work. In this chapter, I attempted to address all components of research design. In the fourth chapter, I explored sampling design, specifically different forms of sample design, and I also explored the various factors that influence sampling design and sampling size. In the fifth chapter, I examined measurement and scaling techniques, including measurement scales, the different sources of error in measurement, techniques of developing measurement tools scaling &scale construction techniques. In the sixth chapter, I look at the different techniques of data collecting. I also attempted to cover the many tools that we use in the various data collection methods. Another important topic I covered in chapter seven of this book is the processing & analysis of data. In this chapter, I discussed the processing operations, problems in processing, different types of analysis, and some numerical part of research such as measurement of central tendency, measurement of dispersion, measurement of asymmetry, correlation, and regression, all of which are crucial parts of any good research work. In the eighth chapter, I deliberately explain the fundamental of sampling iv especially sampling theory, Sandler's a test, the concept of standard error, and estimating the population means and sample size which is the base of any research work. The following topics are explored in the next chapter; the meaning of hypothesis, basic concept concerning testing of hypotheses (parametric), the procedure for hypotheses testing, and tests of hypotheses. I believed that this chapter would be the Unique Selling Preposition of this book. In the ninth and tenth chapters, I discussed the chi-square test, as well as the analysis of variance and covariance, which are crucial topics in research methodology and are used in all sorts of studies. Testing of hypotheses in non-parametric or distribution-free tests is another topic that I covered in the next chapter in brief. In this last chapter, I attempted to discuss multivariate analysis techniques, particularly variables in multivariate analysis, important multivariate techniques, R types & Q type factor analysis, and path analysis. v  Contents Chapter 1 Research Methodology: An Introduction 1-26 1.1 Meaning of Research 1 1.2 Objectives of Research Motivation in 1 Research 1.3 Types of Research 2 1.4 Research Approaches 7 1.5 Signification of Research 9 1.6 Research Methods Versus Methodology 14 1.7 Research and Scientific Method 17 1.8 Importance of knowing how Research is done 21 Research Process 1.9 Criteria of Good Research 22 1.10 Problems Encountered by Researchers in 24 India Chapter 2 Defining the Research Problem 27 - 37 2.1 What is a Research Problem? 27 2.2 Selecting the Problem 31 2.3 Necessity of Defining the Problem 32 2.4 Technique involved in defining a problem an 34 illustration Chapter 3 Research Design 38 - 49 3.1 Meaning of Research Design 38 3.2 Need for Research Design 38 3.3 Feature of a good Design 39 3.4 Important Concepts Relating to Research 40 Design 3.5 Different Research Designs 43 3.6 Basic Principles of Experimental Designs 47 Chapter 4 Sampling Design 50 -63 4.1 Census and Sample Survey 50 4.2 Implication of a Sample Design 52 4.3 Steps in Sampling Design 52 4.4 Different Types of Sample Designs 54 4.5 How to select a Random Sample 58 4.6 Random Sample from an Infinite Universe 61 4.7 Complex Random Sampling designs 62 vi Chapter 5 Measurement and Scaling Techniques 64 - 91 5.1 Measurement in Research 64 5.2 Measurement Scales 64 5.3 Sources of Error in Measurement 67 5.4 Tests of sound Measurement 69 5.5 Technique of Developing Measurement tools 73 Scaling 5.6 Meaning of Scaling 74 5.7 Scale Classification Bases 74 5.8 Scale Construction Techniques 76 Chapter 6 Methods of Data Collection 92 - 130 6.1 Collection of Primary Data 92 6.2 Observation Method 94 6.3 Interview Method 97 6.4 Collection of Data through Questionnaires 104 6.5 Collection of Data through Schedules 110 6.6 Difference between Questionnaires and 112 Schedules 6.7 Some other Methods of Data Collection 115 6.8 Collection of Secondary Data 118 6.9 Selection of Appropriate Method for Data 122 Collection 6.10 Case Study Method 125 Chapter 7 Processing and Analysis of Data 131 - 169 7.1 Processing Operations 131 7.2 Some Problems in Processing 132 7.3 Elements / Types of Analysis 134 7.4 Statistics in Research 135 7.5 Measures of Central Tendency 136 7.6 Measures of Dispersion 144 7.7 Measures of Asymmetry (Skeness) 147 7.8 Measures of Relationship 149 7.9 Simple Regression Analysis 150 7.10 Multiple Correlation and Regression 156 7.11 Partial Correlation 157 7.12 Association in Case of Attributes 160 7.13 Other Measures 164 vii Chapter 8 Sampling Fundamentals 170 - 187 8.1 Concept of Sampling 170 8.2 Principles of Sampling 173 8.3 Important Definitions in Research 173 8.4 Central Limit Theorem 174 8.5 Sampling Theory 175 8.6 Sandler’s A-test 180 8.7 Concept of Standard Error 181 8.8 Estimation 183 8.9 Estimating the Population Mean (µ) 184 8.10 Sample Size and its Determination 185 Chapter 9 Testing of Hypotheses – I (Parametric or 188 – 215 Standard Tests of Hypotheses) 9.1 What is a Hypothesis? 188 9.2 Basic Concepts Concerning Testing of 189 Hypotheses 9.3 Procedure for Hypothesis Testing 195 9.4 Flow Diagram for Hypothesis Testing 199 9.5 Measuring the Power of a hypothesis test 200 9.6 Tests of Hypotheses 200 9.7 Important Parametric Tests 206 9.8 Hypothesis Testing of Means 206 9.9 Hypothesis Testing for Difference between 208 Means 9.10 Hypothesis Testing for Comparing Two 208 Related Samples 9.11 Hypothesis Testing of Proportions 209 9.12 Hypothesis Testing for Difference between 211 Proportions 9.13 Hypothesis Testing for Comparing a Variance 212 to Some Hypothesized Population Variance 9.14 Applications, Advantages and Limitations of 214 the Tests of Hypotheses Chapter 10 Chi – Square Test 216 - 226 10.1 Chi-square as a Test for Comparing 216 Variance 10.2 Chi-square as a Non-parametric Test 219 10.3 Conditions for the Application of χ 2 Test 221 viii  10.4 Steps Involved in Applying Chi-square 221 Test Alternative Formula 10.5 Yates’ Correction 222 10.6 Conversion of χ 2 into Phi Coefficient 223 10.7 Conversion of χ 2 into Coefficient by 224 Contingency 10.8 Important Characteristics of χ 2 Test 225 10.9 Caution in using χ2 Test 225 Chapter 11 Analysis of Variance and Covariance 227 - 236 11.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 227 11.2 The Basic Principle of ANOVA 228 11.3 ANOVA Technique 228 11.4 Coding Method 231 11.5 Two-way ANOVA 231 11.6 ANOVA in Latin-Square Design 232 11.7 Analysis of Co-variance (ANOCOVA) 233 ANOCOVA Technique 11.8 Assumptions in ANOCOVA 235 Chapter 12 Testing of Hypotheses-II (Nonparametric 237 - 244 or Distribution-free Tests) 12.1 Important Nonparametric or Distribution- 237 free Test 12.2 Relationship between Spearman’s r’s and 240 Kendall’s W 12.3 Characteristics of Distribution-free or Non- 242 parametric Tests Conclusion Chapter 13 Multi Variate Analysis Techniques 245 - 269 13.1 Growth of Multivariate Techniques 245 13.2 Characteristics and Applications 246 13.3 Classification of Multivariate Techniques 247 13.4 Variables in Multivariate Analysis 249 13.5 Important Multivariate Techniques 250 13.6 Important Methods of Factor Analysis 253 13.7 Rotation in Factor Analysis 260 13.8 R-type and Q-type Factor Analyses 261 13.9 Path Analysis 265 ix x  Chapter 1 Research Methodology: An Introduction 1.1 Meaning of Research Research is creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge. It involves the collection, organization and analysis of information to increase understanding of a topic or issue. A research project may be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art”. 1.2 Objectives of Research Motivation in Research The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research. 1  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction There are various grouping under which a research falls: 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies); 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies); 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies); 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies). 1.3 Types of Research There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several. 1. According to its Purpose Theoretical research: Theoretical research also referred to as pure or basic research focuses on generating knowledge, regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question. Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high- level researchers. Applied research: Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws 2  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine. This type of research is subdivided into two types: Technological applied research: looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes. Scientific applied research: has a predictive purpose. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects. For example, market research, because by examining consumption patterns, strategies can be developed for the development of new products and marketing campaigns, etc. Applied research is usually based on knowledge or results obtained through theoretical research. In fact, it is common for research projects to first establish the theoretical framework both to define the field of study and to identify possible theories that could be tested or applied to solve the specific problem posed in the project. 2. According to your depth of scope Exploratory research: Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated. Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena. For example, an investigation of the role social media in the perception of self-image. 3  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction Descriptive research: The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it. In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved. For example, investigating how the public census of influential government officials differs between urban and non-urban areas. Explanatory research: Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause- and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment. For example, investigating the brittle behaviour of a specific material when under compressive load. Correlational research: The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change. 3. According to the type of data used Qualitative research: Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations. In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’). For example, examining the effects of sleep deprivation on mood. 4  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction Quantitative research: Quantitative research study delves into a phenomenon through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them. This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time. For example, conducting a computer simulation on vehicle strike impacts to collect quantitative data. 4. According to the degree of manipulation of variables Experimental research: It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method. For example, randomised controlled trial studies for measuring the effectiveness of new pharmaceutical drugs on human subjects. Non-experimental research: Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research. For example, a study on the effects of the use of certain chemical substances in a particular population group can be considered a non- experimental study. Quasi-experimental research: It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations. This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study. For example, assessing the effectiveness of an intervention measure in reducing the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. 5  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction 5. According to the type of inference Deductive investigation: In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly. Inductive research: In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories. Hypothetical-deductive investigation: It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience. 6. According to the time in which it is carried out Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research): It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas. For example, a cohort study that analyses changes in a particular indigenous population over a period of 15 years. Cross-sectional study (also referred to as synchronous research): Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time. 7. According to the sources of information Primary research: This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information. Secondary research: Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher. 6  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction 8. According to how the data is obtained Documentary (cabinet): Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study. Field: Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs. From Laboratory: Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods. Mixed-method: documentary, field and/or laboratory: Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research. 1.4 Research Approaches In a broad, interdisciplinary field such as Planning, research may be conducted in a number of ways. Five possible research approaches are suggested below. They are by no means mutually exclusive: a research project may include two or more of these approaches, or approaches other than those described. The descriptive study: This approach attempts to identify the characteristics of a problem through description. Because the subject cannot be described in all its detail, careful selection of facts must occur. Facts should be gathered according to pre-determined criteria and for the purpose of demonstrating relationships of interest. To the extent that the descriptive study of a particular problem provides one with a generalized understanding of a phenomenon that, in turn, can be employed to understand other specific problems, this approach is useful and acceptable. An example of this approach would be a description of an unusual planning program in operation in one Municipality, with the objective being to illustrate how the program differs from similar programs found in other Municipalities. 7  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction The explanatory study: This approach attempts to find the answer to an enigmatic question. For example, why has an urban area acquired its particular shape, or why has a city council refrained from allowing mobile home parks in the community? The explanatory studies are designed to investigate origin - cause-effect relationships. The typical study includes the collection of empirical data for the formulation of hypotheses or less pretentious hunches and the subsequent test of these hypotheses by any one of a number of ways available to the researcher. The remedial study: The remedial study seeks to formulate plans to correct or improve undesirable social, economic, political, and environmental conditions. These undesirable conditions, causes and processes associated with them are analyzed. Plans, strategies, and policies are formulated to remedy the undesirable conditions. Implementation methods may be suggested. A remedial study may be directed to the solution of pollution of a lake ringed by cottages or to pedestrian and vehicular conflicts in the central business district. The methodological study: The methodological study attempts to devise, test or improve new research methods in Planning. The study may deal with the development of a specific technique for the discipline or may take a technique developed by another discipline and attempt to apply it to a Planning context. Possible examples of this approach are innumerable; for example, the application of new forecasting techniques developed in Management Science to a planning problem, or an attempt to develop methods for breaking down cross census information into smaller temporal or areal units. The historical study: If it is designed to facilitate a deeper understanding of historical processes and is not merely an attempt to fill gaps in our factual knowledge, the historical approach can be very useful. Studies detailing the transference of the modern town Planning movement from Europe to North America or the evolution of company towns in Ontario would be appropriate uses of the historical approach. A suggested essay format: The following is a suggested outline for the essay. The structure may well vary, depending on the topic, the treatment given, and the advice of an advisor as how to most effectively present the material and research findings. 8  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction 1. Abstract (mandatory) 2. Introduction Statement of problem Significance of problem Purpose of study Assumptions and limitations 3. Review of preceding research and literature 4. Survey of pertinent information Methodology and techniques employed Sources of information, data 5. Analysis 6. Summary and conclusions Recommendations for further research 7. References 8. Appendices, if needed. 1.5 Significance of Research Research is able to provide solutions to things that are unknown, bridge gaps in knowledge and improve the way that healthcare professionals work. It is important to understand the essence of research. Doing research merely to secure job tenure or promotion leads to mindless copying from existing research and pasting to form your own paper for publication. The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field of study. A detailed research enables students build critical thinking skills, effective analytical, research, and communication skills. Such skills are globally sought-after and beneficial. Research forms the basis of governmental policies around the globe. The main purposes of research are to inform action, gather evidence for theories, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field of study. This 9  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction article discusses the significance of research and the many reasons why it is important for everyone—not just students and scientists. Understanding that research is important might seem like a no-brainer, but many people avoid it like the plague. Yet, for those who like to learn, whether they are members of a research institution or not, conducting research is not just important—it's imperative It's a tool for building knowledge and facilitating learning. Research is required not just for students and academics but for all professionals and non-professionals alike. It is also important for budding and veteran writers, both offline and online. For non-professionals who value learning, doing research equips them with knowledge about the world and skills to help them survive and improve their lives. Among professionals and scribes, on the other hand, finding an interesting topic to discuss and/or to write about should go beyond personal experience. Determining either what the general public may want to know or what researchers want others to realize or to think about can serve as a reason to do research. Thus, research is an essential component in generating knowledge, and vice-versa. Knowledge is commonly described as a factual proposition in the mind of an individual. It essentially refers to facts based on objective insights and/or study findings processed by the human brain. It can be acquired through various means, such as reading books and articles, listening to experts, watching documentaries or investigative shows, conducting scientific experiments, and interacting with other people, among others. Facts collected during research can be checked against other sources to ensure their truthfulness and accuracy. It's a means to understand issues and increase public awareness. Many film and TV actors also take time to interview individuals to better understand their roles. Actors have worked with detectives, boxers, scientists, business owners, criminals, and teachers, among others to gain an inside understanding of what it's like to have a certain identity. Others even go through immersion so they can begin 10  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction to understand their characters' issues better. This might look like living in jail or in a drug rehabilitation center for a while, gaining or losing a significant amount of weight, or learning to captain a sailboat. Many read literature, biographies, or journals to have a better view or context of the story they've been hired to tell. People both within and outside of the entertainment industry have, on occasion, belittled what actors do or even the profession of acting itself. However, professional thespians like Daniel Day-Lewis exert a great deal of effort to make their characters believable. The dedication they pour into studying their roles involves a tremendous amount of research. Without research, any type of development is impossible. It is important to know the firm base of any new invention which can only be understood with the help of past literatures and available data. Somehow, new topics are based on old researches as new topics are advancements of the old researches. It helps us succeed in business. People both within and outside of the entertainment industry have, on occasion, belittled what actors do or even the profession of acting itself. However, professional thespians like Daniel Day-Lewis exert a great deal of effort to make their characters believable. The dedication they pour into studying their roles involves a tremendous amount of research. R and D can also help secure an advantage over competitors. Finding out how to make things happen more efficiently and differentiate a business's offerings from those of its competitors can raise a company’s market value. Research can also help a company maintain a positive commercial image, retain existing customers, and attract new customers through targeted marketing. Marketing is a type of communication and for that communication to be effective, businesses need to understand their customers. This usually happens through market research, which can involve examining psychological studies about consumption, hosting focus groups, beta testing products with a select group of customers, 11  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction sending satisfaction surveys to existing customers, and researching the business's main competitors, among other strategies. The most successful businesses, large and small, base their product design, service offerings, and marketing communications on insights gleaned from thorough research processes. It allows us to disprove lies and support truths. Have you ever experienced the feeling that your partner is having an affair behind your back? Some people would overlook this and say that it's better not to know; others though would take discreet action, hiring a private detective to find out for sure. What does research have to do with this situation? A lot Doing research to reveal lies or truths involving personal affairs can contribute to either making a relationship work or breaking away from a dysfunctional one. For the monogamous lot, doing research to disprove or prove infidelity is one way to find out the truth. Scientists also deal with research to test the validity and reliability of their claims or those of other scientists. Their integrity and competence depend on the quality of their research. Nevertheless, not everything scientists come up with gets accepted. Scientific work is typically peer-reviewed before being published. This means that when an individual publishes research, it is fact-checked and investigated for common biases, statistical errors, and methodological issues by others in the field before being shared with the scientific community at large. Professional and credible journalists also undertake thorough research to establish the veracity of their stories. The 2003 movie Shattered Glass tells the rise-and-fall story of a real-life journalist who worked for The New Republic based in New York City. If fellow journalists hadn't debunked his stories as fabricated, Stephen Glass could have written even more dubious pieces that would have been taken at face value by readers of the publication. It is a means to find, gauge, and seize opportunities. Research helps people nurture their potential and achieve goals by taking advantage of various opportunities. This can mean securing employment, being awarded scholarships or grants, securing project 12  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction funding, initiating business collaboration, finding budget travel opportunities, or securing other little wins. Research also benefits civil society and its members. Securing funding for projects and research initiatives is a top concern for those who want to address social issues. However, not all funding organizations accept proposals year-round, nor are they all interested in solving the same types of social problems. Thus, it is necessary to conduct research to find agencies whose missions match the objectives of particular advocacy programs or social-change projects. An aspiring business owner can likewise meet potential investors through research. They can examine investor profiles to find a good fit in terms of vision, mission, goals work ethic, and available capital. Some hobbies and interests are expensive to pursue. One of these is traveling. For budget-conscious tourists, searching for airfare and hotel promos, discount rides, and cheap markets is certainly a must to maximize the value of their money. Seizing opportunities can broaden one's social network, raise one's awareness, or secure the support one direly needs to start a project or a business. Indeed, research contributes to a person's ability to make life-changing decisions. It encourages self-growth, participation in worthwhile causes, and productive living. It promotes a love of and confidence in reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing valuable information. Research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions help maintain critical thinking and comprehension. Without these skills, research is far more difficult. Reading opens the mind to a vast reservoir of knowledge, while writing helps us express our own perspectives and transform our thoughts into more concrete ideas in a way others can understand. Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral to conducting research. Conducting interviews, attending knowledge-generating events, and participating in casual talks can 13  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction help us gather information and formulate research topics. These things also facilitate our critical thinking process, much like reading and writing. Listening to experts discuss their work can help us analyze issues from new perspectives and add new techniques to our information-gathering arsenal. With the wide array of ideas floating around and the interconnectedness of people and places through the internet, scholars and non-scholars involved in research are able to share information with a larger audience. Some view this process as ego- boosting, while others see it as a means to stimulate interest and encourage further research into certain issues or situations. It provides nourishment and exercise for the mind. Several studies have shown that mentally stimulating activities like doing research can contribute to brain health. In "Educating the Brain to Avoid Dementia: Can Mental Exercise Prevent Alzheimer Disease?" Margaret Gatz (2005) enumerated research findings that support such a position. However, she also noted that there may be other factors involved in averting dementia and relates issues. One of these is intelligence. A study involving 11-year-old pupils in Scotland in 2000, for instance, pointed to intelligence quotient (IQ) scores as "predictive of future dementia risk". Gatz opined that clinical trials are needed and that "conclusions must be based on large samples, followed over a long period of time." Doing research encourages people to explore possibilities, understand existing issues, and disprove fabrications. Without research, all of our technological advancements and other developments would have remained fantasies. Reading, writing, observing, and analyzing facilitate an inquisitive mind's quest for knowledge, learning, and wisdom. Research is a bridge that we must cross to achieve all of our goals—both personal and societal. 1.6 Research Methods versus Methodology Researchers implement systematic methods to conduct research. They define the research topic to establish a deeper and clearer understanding in the methods section. Furthermore, methods consist of all techniques, 14  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction strategies, and tools employed by a researcher to complete the experiment and find solution to the research problem. However, methodology is a systematic and theoretical approach to collect and evaluate data throughout the research process. It allows researchers to validate a study’s rigor to acquire new information. The purpose of research methodology is to prove the credibility, validity, and reliability of a chosen research method. Objective of methods and methodology While the methods section is just a research tool or a component of research, methodology is the justification for using a particular research method. The objective of research methods is to provide thorough information of research design, participants, equipment, materials, variables, and procedures. It must allow other researchers to reproduce similar results based on the documented methods. Whereas, the objective of research methodology is to determine the accuracy and efficiency of the methods opted by the researchers for a particular experiment. How to write methods and methodology section of a research paper? Most researchers are commonly asked to re-write the methods and methodology section as there exists an ambiguity in the understanding of these elements. One should understand that incorrectness in these sections may lead to repercussions which are uncalled for. A clear knowledge of methods and methodologies employed in research will also make your process of reviewing and understanding other literature easier. A robust method and methodology section is a point of validation for authentic research. Methods While writing the methods section you must remember the following: Authors must duly cite all sources that helped them in selecting the methods for the research study. Furthermore, it should also include parameters of past studies must to indicate relevance with the current study. 15  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction It is mandatory to cite the sources of all participants of the study. The details of participants such as geographical location, age, sex, their initial conditions, etc. must be mentioned in the methods section. The methods section must also include the inclusion and exclusion criteria of subjects. Description of division of chosen group and their characteristics is also an element of the methods section. The methods section must also include the study design. Necessary preparations, software used, and instruments must be explained here. Finally, it must include statistical analyses. For example: type of data, their measurements, and statistical tests. Methodology A well-written methodology section must include the following: An introduction and explanation of reasons for the systematic methodological approach (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed method) used throughout the research process. The methodology section must indicate the applicability, validity, and credibility of all methods applied in the research. It must clearly describe specific data collation methods and provide detailed explanation of data analysis. Lastly, the methodology section must justify rationale for chosen research methods and procedures. What are the key differences between methods and methodology? These key points clearly establish the difference between often mistaken methods and methodology section: Methods Methodology The objective of methods is to The objective of methodology is to find solution to the research determine appropriateness of the problem. methods applied with a view to ascertain solution. Methods are just behaviour or Methodology is analysis of all the tools used to select a research methods and procedures of the technique. investigation. Methods are applied during the Methodologies are applied during the later stage of the research study. initial stage of the research process. 16  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction Methods Methodology It comprises different It is a systematic strategy to find investigation techniques of the solution to the research problem. study. Methods encompasses of Methodology encompasses several carrying out experiments, techniques used while conducting conducting surveys, tests, etc. these experiments, surveys, tests, etc. 1.7 Research and Scientific Method The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Does this mean all scientists follow exactly this process? No. Some areas of science can be more easily tested than others. For example, scientists studying how stars change as they age or how dinosaurs digested their food cannot fast-forward a star's life by a million years or run medical exams on feeding dinosaurs to test their hypotheses. When direct experimentation is not possible, scientists modify the scientific method. In fact, there are probably as many versions of the scientific method as there are scientists! But even when modified, the goal remains the same: to discover cause and effect relationships by asking questions, carefully gathering and examining the evidence, and seeing if all the available information can be combined in to a logical answer. Even though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind that new information or thinking might cause a scientist to back up and repeat steps at any point during the process. A process like the scientific method that involves such backing up and repeating is called an iterative process. Whether you are doing a science fair project, a classroom science activity, independent research, or any other hands-on science inquiry understanding the steps of the scientific method will help you focus your scientific question and work through your observations and data to answer the question as well as possible. 1.7.1 Steps of the scientific method Ask a question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where? 17  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be something you can measure, preferably with a number. Do background research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past. Construct a hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction: "If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen." State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing. Predictions must be easy to measure. Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment: Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same. You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident. Analyze your data and draw a conclusion: Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if they support your hypothesis or not. Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their hypothesis was not supported, and in such cases they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they learned during their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to test it again in a new way. 18  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction Communicating the results to others: To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your findings regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis. The six steps of the scientific method include: Asking a question about something you observe, Doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic, Constructing a hypothesis, Experimenting to test the hypothesis, Analyzing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and Communicating the results to others. What is a scientific method example? A simple example of the scientific method is: Ask a Question: Why does Greenland look so large on a map? Background Research: Learn that Greenland is a quarter the size of the United States in land mass. Also learn that Mercator projection maps are made by transferring the images from a sphere to a sheet of paper wrapped around the sphere in a cylinder. Hypothesis: If I make a Mercator projection map, then the items in the middle of the map will look their true size and the items at the poles will look larger than they really are. Experiment: Use a sphere with 1-inch by 1-inch squares at each pole and the equator to make a Mercator projection map. Measure the squares on the Mercator projection map. Analyze Data and Make Conclusions: The middle-of-the-map squares average 1 inch per side while the squares at the poles 19  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction average 3 inches per side. In conclusion, the projection process used to make Mercator projection maps creates distortion at the poles, but not at the equator. This is why Greenland, which is close to the North Pole, looks larger than it is. Communicate: Make a video, write a report, or give a presentation to educate others about the experiment. Who invented the scientific method? The scientific method was not invented by any one person, but is the outcome of centuries of debate about how best to find out how the natural world works. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was among the first known people to promote that observation and reasoning must be applied to figure out how nature works. The Arab Muslim mathematician and scientist Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (known in the western world as Alhazen) is often cited as the first person to write about the importance of experimentation. Since then, a large number of scientists have written about how science should ideally be conducted and contributed to our modern understanding of the scientific method. Those scientists include Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, John Hume, and John Stuart Mill. Scientists today continue to evolve and refine the scientific method as they explore new techniques and new areas of science. Research VS Scientific Method Let there be no doubt that any research is carried out using scientific methods only. Research is just another name for gathering data and information, analyzing it and then arriving at results, which is primarily what scientists do. To many, scientists appear as outlandish as they possess much deeper knowledge than common people. To an extent, this is true but they are scientists not because of their knowledge but because of their methodology which is scientific and produces results that are testable and tend to produce similar results when replicated. Any research that does not follow scientific methods is doomed to fail as authenticity of the results does not stand chance against scientific enquiry and analysis. Scientific methods are simple to understand, and they are basically a way of thinking about problems and their solutions. They are systematic, logical and sequential in orders with a cause-and-effect principal firmly in 20  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction place. Research is a careful, detailed and systematic study of a thing or a phenomenon to learn something new about it or studying it from a new perspective. Scientific method is just a way of conducting research. But it is a vital cog in any research as anyone with reasonable intelligence can easily perform research armed with scientific methods. However, sound reasoning and observation powers are a prerequisite to conduct research even if one uses scientific methods. A researcher makes no bones about scientific methods he uses to complete his research as it lends credibility to his research and its results. Any research essentially comprises three main steps. Identifying and defining the problem Looking for explanation, research methodologies Observation, measurements, and experimentation Often times it is necessary to go through this procedure several times if there are any doubts about the authenticity of results and this is where scientific methods come handy. They ensure that replication of research is carried out in exactly same fashion every time. These methods also make it possible for any reader to try and replicate the procedure himself and arrive at the conclusions outlined at the end of any research. Brief: Research and scientific methods are deeply interrelated Scientific methods are the methods used to carry out any research These methods lend credibility to any research and its results Use of scientific methods means that any reader can himself verify the results of a research. 1.8 Importance of knowing how Research is done Research Process The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering material and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required, and also training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it. 21  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research is done stems from the following considerations: For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same constitute the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training especially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field objectively. Hence, those aspiring for careerism in research must develop the skill of using research techniques and must thoroughly understand the logic behind them. Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or business administration, community development and social work where persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate and use research results for action. When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring anew intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging everyday experience. Accordingly, it enables us to make intelligent decisions concerning problems facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of research methodology provides tools to look at things in life objectively. In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we can use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods by which they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions. 1.9 Criteria of Good Research The quality of research approximates the truth. The main purpose of this research is to mention the criteria that may assist us to write good research. 22  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction The purpose of research or the problem involved should be clearly defined and sharply limited in terms as explicit as possible. The statement of research problem should have analysis into its simplest elements, its scope and limitations and precise prosperities of the meanings of all words significant to the research. If the researcher failed to do this adequately, he will raise the doubts in readers' minds. It is important to write the research procedure in sufficient detail in order to let another researcher repeat the research, unless the secrecy is imposed. The design of procedure should plane carefully in order to gain objective results. Direct experiments should have satisfactory controls. Direct observations should be recorded in writing as soon as possible after the event. To diminishing siding in selecting and recording data, efforts should be made. The researcher should report with complete explication, demerits in the procedural design and estimate their effect upon the findings. Some demerits effect on data and make them unreliable or lack validity. Competent research should be sensitive to the effects of imperfect design and his experience in analyzing the data should give him bases for estimating their influence. An analysis of data should be completely enough to reveal its significance and the method of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully. The data should be classified in a way that the research reaches a good conclusion. When the statistical methods are used the probability of errors should be evaluated and the criteria of statistical significance applied. "Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis." Researchers are often tempted to expand the bases of exhorting by including personal experiences not subject to the controls under which the research data were gathered. This tends to decrease the objectivity of the research and weaken confidence in findings. 23  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction If the researcher is honest, a greater confidence in the research is warranted where it is possible for the readers of a research report to get an enough information about the researcher, this criterion would be a good bases for judging the degree of confidence a piece of research warrants for this reason, the research should be accompanied by more information about the researcher. 1.10 Problems Encountered by Researchers in India The Problems faced by Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several problems. Some of the important problems are as follows: The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers stake a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the name of research, is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials. The consequence is obvious, vi., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects. As such, efforts should be made to provide shortcutting courses for meeting this requirement. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one sideband business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side. A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched / untreated by the researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programmer so that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the academics. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused 24  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business organizations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the industries. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter- university and interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computer assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus, efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries. 25  Chapter 1: Research Methodology: An Introduction There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage by the concerning agencies. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data collection and related things. 26  Chapter 2 Defining the Research Problem 2.1 What is a Research Problem? A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social science disciplines, the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. The purpose of a problem statement is to: 1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow. 2. Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated. 3. Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information. Basic characteristics of research problem For your research problem to be effective, make sure that it has these basic characteristics: Reflecting on important issues or needs; Basing on factual evidence (it’s non-hypothetical); Being manageable and relevant; 27  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem Suggesting a testable and meaningful hypothesis (avoiding useless answers). Formulating your research problem enables you to make a purpose of your study clear to yourself and target readers. Focus your paper on providing relevant data to address it. A problem statement is an effective and essential tool to keep you on track with research and evaluate it. There are five ways to formulate the research problem: 1. Specify your research objectives; 2. Review its context or environment; 3. Explore its nature; 4. Determine variable relationships; 5. Alternative approaches. Specify research objectives: A clear statement that defines all objectives can help you conduct and develop effective and meaningful research. They should be manageable to bring you success. A few goals will help you keep your study relevant. This statement also helps professors evaluate the questions your research project answers and different methods that you use to address them. Review the context of your research problem: It’s necessary to work hard to define and test all kinds of environmental variables to make your project successful. Why do you need to do that? This step can help you define if the important findings of your study will deliver enough data to be worth considering. Identify specific environmental variables that may potentially affect your research and start formulating effective methods to control all of them. Explore the nature of research problem: Research problems may range from simple to complex, and everything depends on a range of variables and their relationships. Some of them can be directly relevant to specific research questions, while others are completely unimportant for your project. Why should you understand their nature? This knowledge enables you to develop effective solutions. To get a deep understanding of all dimensions, think about focus groups and other relevant details to provide the necessary insight into a particular question. 28  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem Determine variable relationships: Scientific, social, and other studies often focus on creating a certain sequence of repeating behaviours over time. What does your project entail? Completing the entire process involves: Identifying the variables that affect possible solutions to your research problem; Deciding on the degree to which you can use and control all of them for study purposes; Determining functional relationships between existing variables; Choose the most critical variables for a solution of your research problem. During the formulation stage, it’s necessary to consider and generate as many potential approaches and variable relationships as you can. Alternative approaches: Anticipate the possible consequences of alternative approaches there are different consequences that each course of action or approach can bring, and that’s why you need to anticipate them. Why communicate possible outcomes? It’s a primary goal of any research process. Basic steps in formulating a research problem: What is the most essential part of your research project? It is obviously the formulating of a research problem or selecting your research topic. This is because of the quality & relevancy of your research work completely depends on it. The process of formulating a research problem requires a series of steps. Look at 7 basic steps in formulating a research problem. Identify the broad: Study Area this is a great idea to thinking about the subject area of your interest. You should identify the field in which you would like to work a long time after your academic study or graduation. It will help you tremendously to get an interesting research topic. For example- if you do graduation in sociology, you must decide your research study area in sociology. You might choose social problems like unemployment, road accident, community health, HIV/AIDS, etc. For example- if you do post- graduation in Computer Science with specialisation in Cyber Security, you must decide your research study area in Cyber 29  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem security. You might choose problems related with cyber threats, cybercrimes, cyber trends etc. Dissect the broad study area into subareas: In this stage, you need to dissect and specify your research broad study area into some subareas. You would consult with your supervisor in this regard. Write down subareas. For example- if you select unemployment as your broad study area, then dissect it into unemployment & social stability, unemployment & crime, unemployment & individual frustration, etc. In this case, your research title maybe how unemployment produces criminal activities. Or how it creates frustration in mind among unemployed people. For example- if you select Cyber security as your broad study area, then dissect it into network security, web security, database security related with cybercrime, etc. Mark-up your interest: It is almost impossible to study all subareas. That’s why you must identify your area of interest. You should select issues in which you are passionate about. Your interest must be the most important determinant of your research study. Once you selected your research study of interest, you should delete other subareas in which you do not feel interested. Keep in mind that if you lose your interest in your research study it won’t bring any results eventually. Study research questions: In this step in formulating a research problem, you would point out your research questions under the area of interest as you decided in the previous stage. If you select unemployment as your study area, your questions might be “how unemployment impacts on individual social status?” “How it affects social stability?” “How it creates frustration on individuals?” Define what research problem or question you are going to study? The more you study the research problem it will be just as relevant and fruitful to solve the problem indeed. Set out objectives: Set out conspicuously your research root objectives and sub-objectives. Research objectives essentially come from research questions. If you do study “Impact of unemployment on individual social status” as your research problem or research question. Then, set out what would you like to explore to address. 30  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem For Example- your main objective might be to examine the unemployment status in a particular society or state. And sub- objectives would be its effects on individuals’ social life. Setting out specific main and sub-objectives are so crucial. Assess your objectives: Now, you should evaluate your objectives to make sure the possibility of attaining them through your research study. Assess your objectives in terms of time, budget, resources and technical expertise at your hand. You should also assess your research questions in light of reality. Determine what outcome will bring your study. If you can assess accurately the purpose of the research study it will bring significant results in the long run. In fact, research objectives determine the value of the study you are going to work out. Check back: Before you go on research work you should review all steps in formulating a research problem and all the things that you have done till now for the purpose of your research study. Then, ask yourself about your enthusiasm. Do you have enough resources to step up? If you are quite satisfied, then you forward to undertake your research work. You can change any of your plans in the light of reality if it requires. 2.2 Selecting the Problem The research problem undertaken for study should be meticulously selected. The task is challenging so help could be taken from a research guide in this connection. A research guide can at most only aid a researcher select a topic/subject but the problem should spring from the researcher’s head. 2.2.1 Major factors to be considered in selecting a research problem The following important factors should be kept in mind by a researcher when selecting a topic for research: 1. In most cases, subject that is overdone must not be picked, because it will certainly be a complicated task to throw any new light in such a situation. 31  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem 2. Too narrow or too un-explainable problems must be shunned. 3. The significance of the topic, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the expenses required, and the time element are few other criteria that should be considered when selecting a problem. 4. A professional need to ask himself the following questions: Whether he is properly equipped when it comes to his background to handle the research? Whether he has the budget to afford the research? Whether the required cooperation can be obtained from people who must take part in research as subjects? 5. An average researcher should avoid controversial subjects. 6. The topic picked for research must be familiar and feasible so that the relevant research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is extremely challenging to provide definitive ideas regarding how a professional should obtain ideas for his research. To do this, a researcher can make contact with an expert or a lecturer in the University who is already involved in research. He cans also read articles or blog posts published in current literature available on the topic and may think the way the methods and concepts talked about therein could be applied to the solution of other problems. A preliminary study should be done before picking a research problem. This isn’t always required when the problem demands the conduct of a research closely comparable to one that was already done. However, when the field of investigation is pretty new and doesn’t have available a set of well-developed methods, a quick feasibility study should always be carried out. 2.3 Necessity of Defining the Problem Necessity of defining a research problem is important to formulate a research problem properly.Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem 32  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research. The purpose of a problem statement is to: Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow. Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated. Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information. So What! In the social sciences, the research problem establishes the means by which you must answer the "So What?" question. The "So What?" question refers to a research problem surviving the relevancy test [the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy]. Note that answering the "So What" question requires a commitment on your part to not only show that you have researched the material, but that you have thought about its significance. To survive the "So what" question, problem statements should possess the following attributes: Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping generalizations and irresponsible statements], Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words and terms, 33  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem Identification of an overarching question and key factors or variables, Identification of key concepts and terms, Articulation of the study's boundaries or parameters, Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use, Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [regardless of the type of research, it is important to address the “so what” question by demonstrating that the research is not trivial], Does not have unnecessary jargon; and, Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation. 2.4 Technique Involved in Defining a Problem an Illustration The techniques Involved in defining a Research Problem is a crucial part of a research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other: Statement of the problem in a general way; Understanding the nature of the problem; Surveying the available literature Developing the ideas through discussions; and Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition. A brief description of all these points will be helpful. 1. Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or 34  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In case there is some directive from an organizational authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the problem. 2. Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood. 3. Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.”. This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the field for furtherance 35  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem of knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from the existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the present problem. 4. Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc. 5. Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses. In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while defining a research problem: Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided. 36  Chapter 2: Defining the Research Problem The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem. 37  Chapter 3 Research Design 3.1 Meaning of Research Design Research design refers to the framework of market research methods and techniques that are chosen by a researcher. The design that is chosen by the researchers allows them to utilise the methods that are suitable for the study and to set up their studies successfully in the future as well. The design of a research can be either qualitative, quantitative, or mixed. Under these research designs, researchers can choose between different types of research methods; experimental studies, surveys, correlation studies, or quasi-experimental review studies. There are also sub-types of research methods namely experimental design, defining research problems, and descriptive studies. Research designs also include the elements of data collection, measurement of data with the respective tools, and the analysis of the data. As a rule of thumb, the research problem a company chooses to work on is the determining factor of the research design chosen by the researcher instead of the other way round. The market research study’s design phase is the time when the researchers determine the tools to be used in the study and the way they are used. A good research usually ensures minimum levels of bias in the data collection method to improve both the internal and the external validity of the research. The desired outcome of an experimental research is to have a design that will result in the least amount of error in the study. 3.2 Need for Research Design Some essential elements of research designs are highlighted below 1. A research design cannot be decided without an accurate purpose or problem statement. 2. Research designs also include various sampling methods and tools that will be used for collecting data for the research 3. Research designs guide the methods used for data analysis 38  Chapter 3: Research Design 4. Research designs include several types of research methodology 5. Research designs help narrowing down to a probable objective of the research 6. Different research designs require different settings for the conduction of a study 7. Research designs also outline the general timeline it will take to conduct a study using different research methods. 8. Research designs help researchers to narrow down to a particular measurement of analysis. 3.3 Features of a Good Design The main characteristics of research design are: 1. When you are planning to study a phenomenon, you may have an assumption about the kind of data you are expecting to collect. However, the results you find from the study should not be driven from bias and must be neutral. In order to understand the opinions on the obtained results, you can discuss it with multiple people and consider the points made by individuals who agree with the results obtained. 2. When a researcher is replicating an already conducted market research, they expect similar results. Decide the type of research questions you are going to ask through your surveys and define that in your research design. This will help set a standard for the results. Only if your design is reliable, it will help you obtain the expected results. 3. You need to ensure that the survey questionnaire you are using is valid. Validity refers to the fact that the research tool you are using is measuring what it purports to measure. Only valid tools will help researchers in gathering accurate results for their study. 4. The outcome of your research design should be generalisable to a wider population. Findings of a good research design are generalisable to everyone and it indicates that if your survey was to be replicated on any subgroup of the population, it would yield similar results. A good research design ensures to have all the above characteristics in a balanced manner. Apart from these characteristics, researchers must also 39  Chapter 3: Research Design have a good understanding of the different research design types to choose from. This understanding will help them implement the most accurate research design for their study. The design of a study can be either quantitative or qualitative. In rare cases, researchers do use a mix of both of these methods. 3.4 Important Concepts Relating to Research Design Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood. Following are the concepts of related to research design: 1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called 'continuous variables'. * But all variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language' discrete variables '. ** Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of noncontinuous variable. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age, height ~so depends upon the individual's sex, then height is a dependent variable and age and sex are independent variables. Similarly, readymade fil1 and lectures are examples of independent variables, whereas behavioural changes, occurring as a result of the environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables. 2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children's gains in social 40  Chapter 3: Research Design studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an 'experimental error'. A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable (s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables. 3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term 'control' is used when we design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term 'control' is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions. 4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s). 5. Research: hypothesis when a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement tha