Political Communication Research: New Media PDF

it directly competes with journalist-mediated content. Chapter 5: The power of Boundaries of Media Influence: political communication An important finding is that media in...

it directly competes with journalist-mediated content. Chapter 5: The power of Boundaries of Media Influence: political communication An important finding is that media influence has limits - particularly when it encounters strongly held The text explores several fundamental questions personal beliefs. Research on issues like abortion about media influence on public opinion and shows that people with strong existing views tend political outcomes. The core areas examined are: to change their party allegiance rather than their the size of media effects, their duration, the relative beliefs when faced with conflicting party positions. power of different types of communication, and the However, those with weaker views often adjust limits of media influence. their opinions to match their preferred party's stance. Size of Media Effects: The research presents strong evidence that media The text also examines specific cases like effects are substantial enough to influence national healthcare reform and climate change, where elections. Three key field studies demonstrate this: party-sponsored communication significantly 1.​ The Washington Post study showed that shaped public opinion. In the case of climate receiving the liberal-leaning newspaper change, conservative media consumption became increased Democratic voting by about 11 a strong predictor of climate change skepticism, percentage points. particularly after it became framed as a partisan 2.​ A British study found that newspaper issue. endorsement switches caused roughly 11-20 percentage point shifts in voting Economic Impact Context: behavior. The research provides interesting comparisons of 3.​ The Fox News study revealed that Fox different effects: while Fox News might provide News availability in cable markets Democrats with a small regular advantage, contributed to a 0.55 percentage point gain Republican advertising advantages typically add for George W. Bush in the 2000 election. about 2 percentage points to their vote share. Meanwhile, economic performance can swing Duration of Effects: presidential votes by about 4 percent between The research indicates that most media effects elections, showing how various factors combine to tend to decay rapidly. For example, in a Texas influence political outcomes. gubernatorial campaign study, advertising effects largely disappeared within a week. However, the text argues that short duration doesn't necessarily mean lack of impact - timing matters significantly. Political Communication Communication closer to decision points (like election day) can be particularly influential, even if Research: New Media, New brief. Challenges, and New Types of Communication and Their Relative Opportunities Power: The text identifies three main types of political The text concludes that political communication is communication: indeed powerful, but with important nuances: 1.​ Raw news ingredients: These are effects often decay quickly, some types of fundamental events and facts (like communication are more influential than others, economic performance, war casualties, or and strong personal beliefs can resist media terrorist attacks) influence. The most significant impacts often come 2.​ Party-sponsored communication: Messages from either raw news events or sustained partisan directly from political parties and leaders communication, particularly when timed 3.​ Journalist-mediated communication: News strategically near decision points. reporting and framing by media professionals The Core Challenge The field of political communication research is The evidence suggests that raw news ingredients facing what many scholars consider an intellectual (like economic performance) often have the impasse. The primary challenge stems from the strongest effects on public opinion. However, both dramatic changes in how people communicate party-sponsored communication and long-term politically in the digital age, while the field's journalistic slant can significantly influence political research methods and theoretical frameworks have outcomes. The text notes that party-sponsored remained relatively unchanged since the 1960s. communication appears particularly powerful when Historical Development and Current State ​ Using ethnographic studies to understand Political communication research evolved from an modern newsroom practices interdisciplinary field into a more narrowly focused ​ Embracing new theoretical frameworks from discipline, drawing primarily from three main sociology and science/technology studies sources: ​ Addressing fundamental questions about 1.​ Social psychology - contributing a focus on what constitutes news and journalism in the individual attitudes and opinions, along with digital age experimental and survey methods 2.​ Political science - providing an emphasis on Proposed Path Forward elections and governmental processes, plus The article suggests that political communication a preference for quantitative methods research can overcome its current impasse by: 3.​ Mass communication research - offering 1.​ Maintaining its valuable connections to concepts like agenda-setting, framing, and social psychology and political science gate-keeping while engaging more deeply with broader media and communication studies This combination has created a field that primarily 2.​ Adopting more diverse methodological studies how messages from political actors and approaches, including qualitative methods media organizations affect individual political 3.​ Expanding its theoretical framework to attitudes and behaviors. While this approach has include more sociological perspectives been valuable, it struggles to capture the 4.​ Moving beyond just studying message complexities of modern political communication, effects on individual attitudes to examine especially in the digital age. broader institutional and social impacts 5.​ Developing new tools to understand how The Digital Age Challenge political communication functions in modern Modern political communication involves networked societies phenomena that are difficult to study using traditional approaches. For example, how do we The author emphasizes that this evolution doesn't understand: require abandoning current methods and theories, ​ People's use of social networking sites for but rather supplementing them with new political purposes approaches. The goal is to create a more ​ The role of digital intermediaries like search comprehensive understanding of political engines communication that can better capture the ​ Audience fragmentation and information complexities of our modern communication overload environment. ​ The use of specialized databases by political organizations This proposed transformation would represent a ​ Interactive and participatory forms of return to the field's more interdisciplinary roots from political communication the 1930s-1950s, while maintaining the valuable insights and methods developed since the 1960s. Learning from Adjacent Fields The ultimate aim is to better understand not just The article suggests that political communication how political messages affect individuals, but how research could benefit from examining how related the entire ecosystem of political communication fields have adapted to similar challenges: functions and evolves in our rapidly changing world. Audience Research:​ This field has successfully evolved by: ​ Maintaining a balance between quantitative and qualitative methods Anti Colonial Rhetoric and ​ Embracing the concept of "media use" Post Colonial Statecraft in rather than just "media reception" ​ Recognizing audiences as cross-media Ghana consumers rather than medium-specific This article analyzes Kwame Nkrumah's Midnight ​ Adapting to new forms of engagement like Speech, delivered in Ghana at the moment of searching, spreading, and participating independence from British colonial rule in 1957. The author argues that this speech, and the Journalism Studies: ceremony surrounding it, represent a unique act of This field has shown how theoretical and rhetorical invention crucial to understanding methodological diversity can help understand postcolonial statecraft and the broader modern communication by: decolonization process in Africa and its diaspora. ​ Combining traditional quantitative methods The analysis centers on four key elements: the with qualitative approaches crowd, Nkrumah himself, the Old Polo Grounds where the ceremony took place, and the midnight pan-Africanism, vernacular African epistemologies, timing. and Western theories—to forge a unique style suited to the specific context of postcolonial political The Crowd as Mass Public: foundation. This aligns with Frantz Fanon's The author challenges Western conceptions of the concept of revolutionary invention as a rupture with public sphere, arguing that Nkrumah's politics the past, creating "new men" and a "new leveraged the crowd, not as a homogenous entity language." to be molded into a public, but as a dynamic force in itself. The crowd represented diverse Nationalism and Pan-Africanism: constituencies brought together by the Convention The speech skillfully balances Ghanaian People's Party (CPP), defying colonial divisions nationalism with a broader pan-African vision. The and precolonial hierarchies. The speech's use of choice of the name "Ghana," referencing a "these thousands" and "your millions" highlights the powerful pre colonial empire, and the repeated crowd's dual nature: its immediate presence and its emphasis on the interconnectedness of African symbolic representation of a larger, potential liberation underscore this. Nkrumah’s statement national and pan-African community. that independence is “meaningless unless it is linked up with total liberation of the African Nkrumah as Embodiment of the Mass State: continent” highlights the rejection of neocolonial The article contrasts Nkrumah's fiery, emotive style dynamics and a commitment to a truly independent ("Showboy") during the anticolonial struggle with and unified Africa. his more formal role as leader of the postcolonial state ("Osagyefo"). The CPP's anticolonial In essence, the article offers a richly nuanced communication strategy cleverly intertwined analysis of Nkrumah's Midnight Speech, positioning newspapers, mass meetings, propaganda vans, it not just as a historical event but as a powerful and rumors to reach the largely illiterate population. exemplar of decolonial rhetoric and a significant After independence, radio became a primary tool contribution to understanding the complexities of for centralized messaging, but this also distanced postcolonial state-building and the creation of new Nkrumah from the intimate, reciprocal relationship social imaginaries. he previously enjoyed with the masses. The author highlights the trade-offs of this shift from a dynamic, participatory system to a more monologic, state-controlled one. Chapter 4: Media and Political Knowledge The Old Polo Grounds as a Symbolic Site: The choice of the Old Polo Grounds, the location of Why People Know So Little a significant 1948 protest, was deliberate. It linked The article discusses the lack of knowledge about the independence celebration to earlier anticolonial government and political issues among Americans, struggles and established the new nation's identity particularly in comparison to citizens from in relation to its history of resistance. The grounds' European countries. Five explanations are offered transformation into the Kwame Nkrumah National for this knowledge deficit: Park further solidified its symbolic significance for 1.​ Lack of incentive: With one person's vote Ghanaian nationalism. making little difference in the outcome of an election, there is no strong motivation to Midnight as Liminality and Rhetorical Invention: expend time and effort to learn about The midnight timing itself is crucial. The author political issues. draws on anthropological concepts of liminality, 2.​ News presentation: The way news is arguing that this moment of transition between past presented, with a focus on facts, figures, and future allowed for a radical act of rhetorical and jargon, can overwhelm people and invention. The speech, along with Nehru's similar make it difficult for them to understand "Tryst with Destiny" speech in India, created a complex issues. transnational convention of postcolonial address. 3.​ Expansion of media choices: With the This "midnight speech" genre represents a proliferation of entertainment options, news powerful moment of freedom, subverting existing may be lost in the mix and people may not power structures and creating a new social feel the need to seek out political imaginary. information. 4.​ Leaders' deliberate dissembling: Leaders Decolonial Rhetorical Invention: may intentionally convey misleading The article contrasts the dominant focus on information, making it difficult for people to classical Western rhetorical traditions with a know what is true and what is not. decolonial approach. It emphasizes the "creolized" 5.​ Disconnect between politics and everyday nature of Nkrumah's rhetoric, drawing from diverse life: Many Americans feel that politics is a sources—Indian anticolonial thought,  distant and irrelevant aspect of their lives, choices and being able to consume information that making it less important to learn about. is more tailored to their interests. The Case for a Minimally Informed Citizenry The Demise of the Inadvertent Audience - The The article presents a philosophical perspective article notes that the traditional TV news audience that suggests that people are doing just fine, was characterized by a significant proportion of despite their lack of knowledge about politics. This people who were not interested in politics, but perspective argues that: watched the news anyway because it was part of 1.​ People develop shortcuts or heuristics to their regular viewing routine. This "inadvertent" help them make political decisions, such as audience was exposed to political information, even evaluating candidates based on their values if they were not motivated to seek it out. However, and party labels. with the decline of network TV news and the rise of 2.​ Tests of political knowledge are flawed and cable and online news, this audience has largely require people to supply trivial facts that are disappeared. peripheral to the actual task of citizenship. 3.​ Good citizenship does not require intimate Selective Exposure - The article argues that the knowledge of every issue, but rather the increased availability of media channels and ability to scan the political environment and sources has led to selective exposure, where look out for dangers to personal wellbeing people are more likely to seek out information that and the public welfare. confirms their existing attitudes and avoid 4.​ The system can function adequately so long information that challenges them. This is as there is a healthy minority of individuals particularly true for the politically attentive, who are who closely follow political issues and more likely to actively seek out information that remain knowledgeable about politics. aligns with their views. Putting it Together Implications for Media Effects - The article The article concludes by discussing the role of suggests that the changes in the media mass media in informing Americans and the environment have significant implications for media limitations of media in addressing knowledge effects research. With the decline of the inadvertent deficits. The four general conclusions about media audience, exposure to political information is now and knowledge levels are: more tied to motivational factors, and people are 1.​ The media play an instrumental role in more likely to be exposed to information that informing Americans, but are not a panacea confirms their existing attitudes. This has for knowledge deficits. implications for the potential for persuasion, as 2.​ The media have different strengths, such as people who are not motivated to seek out political newspapers for complicated discussion and information are less likely to be exposed to it. television for emotional information. 3.​ Media effects depend on the particular Niche News - The article notes that the increased medium, content, and audience, and availability of media channels and sources has led individuals bring their own biases and to the emergence of "niche news" providers, such knowledge to the media equation. as Fox News, which cater to specific political 4.​ The research reminds us that life is not fair, preferences. This has created a market for news and the richer and more educated tend to that is tailored to specific audiences, rather than a know more about politics, with news one-size-fits-all approach. potentially exacerbating these gaps in knowledge. Overall, the article suggests that the changes in the media environment have significant implications for the way people consume and process political The Oxford Handbook of information, and that media effects research must take into account these changes in order to Political Communication understand the impact of media on political attitudes and behaviors. Chapter 4: A Typology of Media Effects Six Ways the Media Changes in the Media Environment - The article discusses the changes in the media environment Influence Elections (Article) over the past 50 years, from the dominance of TV The article discusses the ways in which the media to the proliferation of cable TV and the Internet. can influence elections, highlighting six key ways in This has led to a more fragmented audience, with which journalists and media outlets can shape people having access to a wider range of media public opinion and affect the outcome of an election. The Oxford Handbook of 1. To Cover or Not to Cover Political Communication The media's decision to cover certain candidates or issues can have a significant impact on voter Chapter 13 perceptions. Research has shown that name State of the Field recognition is a key factor in determining a The article discusses the state of research on niche candidate's success, and the media's coverage can communication, which is theoretically and either boost or hinder a candidate's visibility. empirically underdeveloped. The rapid pace of technological advancements means that 2. Bias, Scripts, and Polarization scholarship is constantly playing catch-up to new The media's coverage of elections can also be technologies and their use in politics. The research influenced by bias and political polarization. that does exist is often descriptive, documenting Research has shown that many major media the use of new technologies without exploring their outlets attract partisan audiences, which can lead impact. The article also notes that the to a lack of diversity in perspectives and a fragmentation of the information environment is perpetuation of political divisions. reflected in the existing scholarship, with research scattered across different fields and subfields. 3. Social Media: Echo Chamber and Direct Line to the Masses Directions for Future Research Social media has changed the way people The article suggests that future research on consume news and interact with candidates. While campaign communication should focus on the social media can provide a direct line to the context and characteristics of communication, masses, it can also create an echo chamber where rather than just the mode of communication. This people only see information that confirms their includes factors such as who delivers the message, existing beliefs. how, to whom, and what the content is. The article also notes that the power of thinking in terms of 4. A Picture is Worth 1000 Words communication characteristics is that it can capture Visual communication research has shown that the increasingly blurry lines across modes and the images can have a powerful impact on voter diversity within mode, and advance theory building. perceptions. The photos and images used in news coverage can convey emotions, actions, realism, Methodological Challenges and credibility, and can also influence voter The article highlights the methodological perceptions. challenges of studying niche communications, including the difficulty of collecting data on the 5. Data Journalism: Fact-Checking, Polls, and volume and content of messages, and the lack of the Self-Perpetuating Cycle regulatory oversight and record keeping of many Data journalism has become increasingly important niche communications. in election coverage, with fact-checkers and data analysts providing accurate information and context Normative Implications to voters. However, the media's focus on polls and The article discusses the normative implications of horse race coverage can perpetuate a niche communications, including the potential to self-perpetuating cycle, where the media's attention exacerbate inequalities in political information and on a candidate's standing in the polls can influence engagement, and the fragmentation of candidate their actual performance. platforms and messages. The article notes that these issues deserve further attention, particularly 6. Watchdogs of Democracy in the context of democratic theories of Finally, the media plays a crucial role in monitoring governance. the democratic process and holding those in power accountable. Journalists and media outlets can Future Research Directions provide critical coverage of voting issues and The article suggests several future research problems, and can help to ensure that the directions, including: democratic process is fair and transparent. ​ Examining the strategic use of niche communications by political candidates ​ Investigating the impact of niche communications on political participation and knowledge ​ Exploring the normative implications of niche communications for democratic governance  ​ Developing new methods for studying niche ​ Candidates use social media to target communications, such as field experiments specific voters, harnessing messages that and content analysis are exquisitely tailored to their social media profiles. ​ The Obama campaign was a pioneer in The Dynamics of Political using online media, raising record amounts of small online donations and creating its Communication Chapter 8 own social network. ​ Twitter has become a key platform for 20th Century Campaigns candidates, allowing them to reach voters ​ Theodore Roosevelt championed directly and build a following. transparency and argued that publicity could expose corporate corruption. Key Concepts ​ Franklin D. Roosevelt transformed the ​ Image-making and message-sculpting are modern presidency, using radio to indispensable tools in the presidential communicate with the public and spin armamentarium. political information to his desired ends. ​ Presidents must navigate the tension ​ John F. Kennedy exploited television's focus between truthfulness and image-making. on images to his strategic advantage, using ​ Digital media has transformed presidential nonverbal expressions to make his point campaigns, with candidates using a range and deflecting questions. of technologies to influence voters. ​ Richard Nixon's presidency was marked by ​ Twitter has become a key platform for cynicism about the truthfulness of candidates, allowing them to reach voters presidential communication. directly and build a following. ​ Candidates must consistently connect with Television and Presidential Campaigns: The followers and deliver simple, Emergence of Image emotion-packed tweets to have a positive ​ The rise of television led to concerns about impact on their campaign. elites' ability to manipulate symbols and create artificial events. Main Points ​ Daniel J. Boorstin warned of the ability of ​ The rise of television and digital media has politicians to contrive artificial events and transformed presidential campaigns. create spectacles that an unsuspecting ​ Candidates must navigate the tension public perceived as authentic. between truthfulness and image-making. ​ Kennedy thrived on the image, while Nixon ​ Image-making and message-sculpting are flailed with it, eventually recognizing the indispensable tools in the presidential importance of image-making. armamentarium. ​ Twitter has become a key platform for Mastering the Art of Media Image-Making candidates, allowing them to reach voters ​ The detritus of Nixon's presidency included directly and build a following. cynicism about the truthfulness of ​ Candidates must consistently connect with presidential communication. followers and deliver simple, ​ Presidents must massage the truth to some emotion-packed tweets to have a positive degree, and the intent and degree to which impact on their campaign. they do this determines the ethics of their actions. ​ Ronald Reagan was dubbed the "great communicator" because he understood the The Oxford Handbook of grammar and syntax of the medium. ​ His communication strategies included Political Communication photo-ops, sound bites, and the line of the Chapter 12 day. Whether to Debate and Under what Auspices? Presidential Campaigns in the Digital ​ Debates have become obligatory at the Marketplace presidential level, but the likelihood of ​ The rise of digital media has transformed debates has not been extensively studied. presidential campaigns, with candidates ​ The Commission on Presidential Debates using a digital cocktail of media (CPD) has established conditions for technologies to influence voters. considering whom to include in debates, ​ The game is still powerful, but the and there has been increasing attention to techniques are refined and more third-party access and debate format. personalized. Format Main Points ​ Format refers to the flow of events in a ​ Debates have become obligatory at the debate, physical arrangement of the stage, presidential level, but the likelihood of and editorial considerations. debates has not been extensively studied. ​ Campaign operatives have negotiated over ​ Format is a critical aspect of debates, and format issues to seek advantage for their campaign operatives have negotiated over candidates, ensure equity, control, and format issues to seek advantage for their predictability. candidates. ​ Some formats have elicited controversy, ​ The identity and personal characteristics of such as the press panel format used until participants may affect their conduct and 1988. the press coverage and audience response to debates. Participants ​ Vocal qualities evinced by participants in ​ The identity and personal characteristics of general election debates mirror the participants may affect their conduct and candidates' respective "social dominance" the press coverage and audience response and correlate strongly with electoral to debates. outcomes. ​ Research has focused primarily on white ​ Research has focused primarily on white male candidates, limiting the range of male candidates, limiting the range of variables to test. variables to test. Gender ​ Research suggests that female candidates are more likely to be portrayed in conflictual Why Strongmen Win in postures than male candidates. Weak States (Article) ​ Other studies have found no gender-based differences in candidates' behavior. Whether to Debate and Under what Auspices? ​ Debates have become obligatory at the Voice presidential level, but the likelihood of ​ Research suggests that vocal qualities debates has not been extensively studied. evinced by participants in general election ​ The Commission on Presidential Debates debates mirror the candidates' respective (CPD) has established conditions for "social dominance" and correlate strongly considering whom to include in debates, with electoral outcomes. and there has been increasing attention to ​ The fundamental frequency of phonation third-party access and debate format. (F0) is an important part of how humans produce sound with their voice and is Format correlated with perceived social status. ​ Format refers to the flow of events in a ​ Lower-status individuals accommodate their debate, physical arrangement of the stage, vocalizations to those of higher-status and editorial considerations. persons, and this phenomenon applies in ​ Campaign operatives have negotiated over presidential debates and correlates with format issues to seek advantage for their electoral outcome. candidates, ensure equity, control, and predictability. Key Concepts ​ Some formats have elicited controversy, ​ Debates have become obligatory at the such as the press panel format used until presidential level, but the likelihood of 1988. debates has not been extensively studied. ​ Format is a critical aspect of debates, and Participants campaign operatives have negotiated over ​ The identity and personal characteristics of format issues to seek advantage for their participants may affect their conduct and candidates. the press coverage and audience response ​ The identity and personal characteristics of to debates. participants may affect their conduct and ​ Research has focused primarily on white the press coverage and audience response male candidates, limiting the range of to debates. variables to test. ​ Vocal qualities evinced by participants in general election debates mirror the Gender candidates' respective "social dominance" ​ Research suggests that female candidates and correlate strongly with electoral are more likely to be portrayed in conflictual outcomes. postures than male candidates.  ​ Other studies have found no gender-based ​ Simultaneous democratic transition and differences in candidates' behavior. state-building are possible, and can be achieved across diverse regions and stages Voice of economic development. ​ Research suggests that vocal qualities ​ The trend is clear: in those new evinced by participants in general election democracies that have seen the greatest debates mirror the candidates' respective improvements in transparency and "social dominance" and correlate strongly accountability in public life, satisfaction with with electoral outcomes. the political system has risen. ​ The fundamental frequency of phonation (F0) is an important part of how humans produce sound with their voice and is correlated with perceived social status. The Oxford Handbook of ​ Lower-status individuals accommodate their Political Communication vocalizations to those of higher-status persons, and this phenomenon applies in Chapter 26 presidential debates and correlates with News Sources: Presidents and Public Relations electoral outcome. ​ The president is the single most influential news source in the US, and virtually Key Concepts everything they do is considered ​ Debates have become obligatory at the newsworthy. presidential level, but the likelihood of ​ The president's agenda can be measured debates has not been extensively studied. by the legislative action proposed in their ​ Format is a critical aspect of debates, and annual State of the Union address. campaign operatives have negotiated over ​ Research has shown that the president's format issues to seek advantage for their agenda can influence the media agenda, candidates. but the relationship is complex and depends ​ The identity and personal characteristics of on various factors. participants may affect their conduct and ​ Republican presidents tend to influence the the press coverage and audience response media agenda on Republican issues, while to debates. Democratic presidents tend to follow the ​ Vocal qualities evinced by participants in media emphasis on Democratic issues. general election debates mirror the ​ Government information officers and candidates' respective "social dominance" commercial public relations practitioners are and correlate strongly with electoral also important news sources that influence outcomes. media and policy agendas. ​ Latinization: the nexus of economic privilege, political connections, and unequal News Sources: Campaigns access to justice depicted as characteristic ​ Political campaigns are an important of Latin American societies and, to a lesser influence on media agendas, especially in extent, the countries of Southern Europe. countries that hold regular elections. ​ Campaigns try to control the media agenda Main Points to influence the public agenda, and part of ​ Debates have become obligatory at the the media agenda is under their direct presidential level, but the likelihood of control. debates has not been extensively studied. ​ Campaigns spend huge amounts of money ​ Format is a critical aspect of debates, and on political advertising to convey their campaign operatives have negotiated over agendas and images, and also exert efforts format issues to seek advantage for their to influence news media agendas. candidates. ​ Research has shown that politicians in ​ The identity and personal characteristics of Britain have more influence on the news participants may affect their conduct and agenda than their counterparts in the US, the press coverage and audience response due to cultural differences in journalists' to debates. orientations toward politicians and election ​ Vocal qualities evinced by participants in campaigns. general election debates mirror the ​ American journalists have more discretion candidates' respective "social dominance" to shape the campaign news agenda than and correlate strongly with electoral British journalists, and are more likely to use outcomes. party-initiated material. ​ Research has focused primarily on white ​ US journalists are not likely to uncritically male candidates, limiting the range of accept campaign agendas, and there is still variables to test.  considerable discretion on their part to set ​ These factors have to be examined in the the public agenda. context of lobbying and other forms of strategic communication. Key Concepts ​ But we also have to find ways to incorporate ​ The president is the single most influential longer, perhaps cyclical trends reflecting news source in the US. shifts in public sentiment and ideology as ​ The president's agenda can influence the well as those in underlying sociotechnical media agenda, but the relationship is systems. complex and depends on various factors. ​ Because there are historically distinct ​ Government information officers and periods within which differential patterns of commercial public relations practitioners are enablement and constraint develop within important news sources that influence social systems, our understanding of the media and policy agendas. rise and fall of social problems, and the ​ Political campaigns are an important policies that are proposed to deal with them influence on media agendas, especially in will require an expanded scope of inquiry. countries that hold regular elections. ​ Taking into account the many constraints on ​ Campaigns try to control the media agenda policy change that have been identified by to influence the public agenda, and part of Baumgartner et al. (2009) will require the media agenda is under their direct consideration of the myriad factors that alter control. the character and distribution of risk. ​ Giving due consideration to these complex Main Points structural relations will require a ​ The president's agenda can influence the redistribution of energy and other resources media agenda, but the relationship is away from what is believed has been a complex and depends on various factors. misplaced emphasis among scholars of ​ Republican presidents tend to influence the political communication and on individuals media agenda on Republican issues, while and their cognitive processes. Democratic presidents tend to follow the ​ Although I do believe that there is still much media emphasis on Democratic issues. to be learned about how our identification ​ Government information officers and with groups, and our orientations toward commercial public relations practitioners are others shape our responses to the important news sources that influence strategically framed messages that invoke media and policy agendas. them, we have much more to learn about ​ Political campaigns are an important how those messages come to be produced influence on media agendas, especially in and distributed in the first place. countries that hold regular elections. ​ Campaigns try to control the media agenda to influence the public agenda, and part of the media agenda is under their direct South East Asia’s Troubling control. Elections: Non Democratic ​ American journalists have more discretion to shape the campaign news agenda than Pluralism in Indonesia British journalists, and are more likely to use The article discusses the 2019 Indonesian party-initiated material. presidential election and its implications for ​ US journalists are not likely to uncritically democracy in the country. The election saw the accept campaign agendas, and there is still incumbent president, Joko Widodo (Jokowi), defeat considerable discretion on their part to set his challenger, Prabowo Subianto, in a campaign the public agenda. marked by increasing polarization between religious pluralists and proponents of a stronger role for Islam. The Oxford Handbook of Political Communication The article argues that the election was not a straightforward confirmation of Indonesia's Chapter 34 democratic status quo, but rather a sign of the country's slow-motion slide towards democratic Critical Questions that Remain regression. Jokowi's campaign focused on ​ There is still considerable work to be done defending religious pluralism and the in identifying the factors that influence the Pancasila-based state, while Prabowo's campaign rise and fall of equity frames in public emphasized the need for a stronger role for Islam discourse and on media agendas. in Indonesian politics. The article highlights several key points: norms and the rise of echo chambers. They 1.​ The decoupling of religious pluralism from argue that audiences are seeking out media broader democratic norms: Jokowi's that confirms their existing beliefs and campaign focused on defending pluralism, biases, rather than seeking out diverse but at the expense of other democratic perspectives and information. ideals, such as the protection of minority ​ The author also discusses the concept of rights and the promotion of democratic disequilibration, which refers to the process freedoms. of challenging one's existing beliefs and 2.​ The increasing polarization between perspectives. They argue that religious pluralists and proponents of a disequilibration is essential for personal stronger role for Islam: The election saw a growth and development, but that it is often sharp increase in polarization between absent in the horizontal media landscape. these two groups, with Jokowi's supporters ​ The article also touches on the concept of emphasizing the need to defend pluralism agendamelding, which refers to the process and Prabowo's supporters calling for a of combining agendas derived from stronger role for Islam. mediated and unmediated worlds. The 3.​ The erosion of democratic norms: The author argues that agendamelding is a key election saw a decline in democratic norms, factor in shaping public opinion and that it is with both Jokowi and Prabowo engaging in often driven by horizontal media. authoritarian behavior, such as using law ​ The author concludes by highlighting the enforcement agencies to silence opponents challenges posed by the rise of horizontal and manipulating the media. media, including the erosion of democratic 4.​ The rise of nondemocratic pluralism: The norms and the rise of echo chambers. They article argues that Jokowi's campaign argue that citizens, journalists, and political represents a form of nondemocratic leaders must grapple with this new reality pluralism, which prioritizes the defense of and find ways to promote diversity and minority rights over other democratic ideals. inclusivity in the media landscape. The article concludes by highlighting the Some key points from the article include: implications of the election for democracy in ​ The collapse of traditional media and the Indonesia and beyond. It argues that the election is rise of horizontal media a reminder that protecting minority rights is crucial ​ The dangers of echo chambers and the to any democratic project, but that cutting off the erosion of democratic norms defense of such rights from advocacy of other ​ The importance of disequilibration and liberal rights and freedoms can have an agendamelding in shaping public opinion antidemocratic effect. The article also notes that ​ The challenges posed by the rise of the Indonesian case is a useful reminder of the horizontal media, including the erosion of need to be cautious of forms of political democratic norms and the rise of echo mobilization that prioritize religious, ethnic, and chambers cultural pluralism over other aspects of democracy. ​ The need for citizens, journalists, and political leaders to promote diversity and inclusivity in the media landscape. Each Fairy Tale, Each Myth - The Collapse of Vertical Foreign Policy (Article) Media into a Welter of Background ​ Ukrainian President Zelensky visited Disequilibrating Horizontal Romania on October 10th, but the visit was marred by a last-minute cancellation of a Media scheduled speech due to opposition from ​ The article discusses the collapse of Romania's nationalist party, Alliance for the traditional media and the rise of horizontal Union of Romanians (AUR). media, which is characterized by niche ​ Romania plays a crucial role in providing audiences and agenda communities. The humanitarian aid and military equipment to author argues that this shift is not a Ukraine, as well as enabling grain to reach convergence of media, but rather a collapse world markets. of traditional media and the creation of new media ecosystems. Romania's Position ​ The author highlights the dangers of this ​ Romania's relations with Kyiv are a shift, including the erosion of democratic sensitive issue domestically and internationally.  ​ The country's potential shift in position a more pro-European and anti-corruption could have significant ramifications for government in Romania. Europe's economic and political environment. Energy Security Theory of Change for ​ Romania's infrastructure and natural gas Advocacy (Video) developments offer a promise of mitigating Russian threats over the medium term. Help strengthen strategies and increase the ​ The successful development of Romania's likelihood of impact gas production could blunt the Kremlin's (1) What is the overall change? What is the economic weapon of natural gas supplies. difference you are trying to make? ​ The Kremlin has weaponized natural gas ​ What are the steps immediately before supplies, driving inflation to highs not seen that? in decades. ​ What are the smaller changes that allow you to make that overall change? Russian Influence ○​ called preconditions or critical ​ Russia has a history of using networks of success factors influence and business partners to gain a (2) What are the preconditions? foothold in energy projects across Europe, ​ Major obstacles that you need to overcome including in Romania. to achieve the overall change. ​ Romanian companies, such as GSP, have (3) What is your role? investments in Russia and have not ​ Consider your: announced plans to leave the Russian ○​ knowledge market despite increased sanctions. ○​ relationships (4) What does progress look like? Corruption and Russian Influence ​ Set SMART goals ​ Romania's track record in targeting ​ How can you make that progress? corruption and Russian influence networks TOC and Action Plan has been mixed. ​ Test + sense - check (expert, colleagues, ​ The country's anti-corruption agenda has allies) been frozen in its tracks since the removal ​ Fill evidence + info of the head of the National Anti-Corruption ○​ START IMPLEMENTING Directorate (DNA) in 2018. ​ The country's fractured parliament has been highly dysfunctional, making it difficult to Theory of Change for tackle corruption and potential Russian influence. Advocacy and Campaigns Gas Development (Article) ​ Romania's gas promise needs to be a Overview priority to ensure that it is developed for the ​ Campaigners and advocates often try to benefit of Romanians, Europe, and Ukraine. simplify complex processes of change by ​ However, with a track record of serving as a identifying a problem and solution, vehicle for Russian influence, sanctions producing campaign messaging, and evasion must be kept out of Romania's communicating core messages. burgeoning Black Sea gas industry. ​ However, this approach can be ineffective in achieving change, and it can be difficult to European Action understand and measure effectiveness and ​ Europe must act now to engage proactively impact. to address Romanians' political concerns, ​ Theory of change can help by making links lest the AUR take advantage of the between what is being done and the change situation. that is wanted to see. ​ The development of Romania's gas production is crucial for Europe's energy Benefits of a Theory of Change Approach security, and Europe must prioritize it. ​ Developing a theory of change can help to: ​ Understand the role in the broader Glimmers of Hope processes of change ​ A recent poll found that NATO Deputy ​ Reflect on how change might unfold and Secretary Mircea Geoana is favored to win what role can be played the presidency if he runs as an independent, offering a glimmer of hope for  ​ Build a common understanding within the ​ Clarity of Purpose: Successful strategies team focus on a clear objective, ensuring every ​ Remain focused on the change being action aligns with the core mission. worked towards ​ Audience Targeting: Identifying and ​ Strengthen understanding of progress and understanding the key decision-makers and results influencers. ​ Develop a framework for measuring ​ Compelling Messaging: Crafting messages learning and effectiveness that resonate emotionally and intellectually with the audience. Developing a Theory of Change ​ Effective Partnerships: Collaborating with ​ A theory of change can be developed at like-minded organizations to amplify reach various levels (coalition, organization, team, and impact. or individual campaign). ​ The process should be participatory, involving reflection and discussion in a group setting. Khan Academy - Interest ​ A theory of change should consist of more Groups and Lobbying than a diagram, with a narrative explanation of how and why change will happen. (Video) Understanding Interest Groups Simplified Theory of Change Process ​ Interest groups are collections of people The process involves asking four key questions: organized to advocate for specific public 1. What is the overall change? policy 2. What are the pre-conditions? ​ They form one part of the "iron triangle" 3. What is your contribution? along with Congress and bureaucracy 4. What does progress look like? ​ Can represent various interests: ○​ Corporations/industries Key Questions ○​ Social causes 1. What is the overall change? (zoom out to the ○​ Can vary significantly in size bigger picture impact, at least 3 years in the future) 2. What are the pre-conditions? (critical success The Iron Triangle Relationship factors, flip-side of obstacles to change) ​ Interest groups provide electoral support to 3. What is your contribution? (dependent on Congress through: knowledge, skills, and experience) ○​ Mobilizing members to vote 4. What does progress look like? (clarify ○​ Advertising support implications of answers to first three questions) ○​ Direct financial contributions ​ In exchange, they may receive: Clarifying Your Theory of Change ○​ Friendly legislation Before thinking about progress, summarize the ○​ Favorable oversight implications of answers to the first three questions. ○​ Access to lawmakers Origin and Role of Lobbying What Makes a Brilliant ​ Term originated in 17th century England Advocacy Strategy (Video) ​ Named after lobbyists waiting in Parliament building lobbies What makes a brilliant advocacy strategy? ​ Modern lobbyists: ​ 3 main things to focus on ○​ Meet with Congress members and ​ Firstly being clear on what you want their staff ○​ a good ask of a policy or decision ○​ Influence bill introduction maker ○​ Attempt to sway votes on legislation ○​ is it urgent ○​ is it important Major Interest Groups Examples ○​ is it something they can actually give ​ AFL-CIO (American Federation of you; are you asking the right person Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations) ​ Secondly being clear on who can give you ○​ Labor union organization what you want ○​ 12.5 million members ​ Thirdly and most importantly is WHY ○​ Advocates for labor-friendly policies haven’t they given you what you want ​ U.S. Chamber of Commerce ○​ Over 300,000 members (including Effective approaches for impactful advocacy: corporations)  ○​ Consistently highest spending ​ They work at the federal level by meeting lobbying group with members of Congress to introduce ○​ Advocates for business-friendly legislation and encourage them to vote in policies ways that benefit their clients. ​ NAACP ​ Lobbyists work at the local and state levels ○​ Smaller budget but highly influential as well. ○​ Focuses on minority rights ​ National Rifle Association (NRA) Debate over their Influence ○​ Focused specifically on gun ​ Lobbyists are often viewed unfavorably by rights/ownership the public due to their influence over ○​ Notable for concentrated focus on policy-making and the fact that most specific issues Americans do not have the funds to spend ​ American Medical Association on trying to influence their members of ○​ 240,000 members (mostly Congress. physicians) ​ There are about 9,500 lobbyists registered ○​ Highly influential despite smaller at the federal level, and together they spend size more than $3 billion trying to influence ​ AARP (American Association for Retired members of Congress every year. Professionals) ○​ 37 million members Who Can be a Lobbyist? ○​ $1.6 billion budget ​ States have their own regulations on lobbyists regarding who is allowed to seek Interest Group Spending to influence the legislative process in their ​ Money is spent on various activities: legislatures. ○​ Direct lobbying ​ At the federal level, a lobbyist is defined by ○​ Voter education the law as someone who earns at least ○​ Legal funds $3,000 over three months from lobbying ○​ Candidate support activities, has more than one contact they ○​ Media advertising are seeking to influence, and spends more than 20% of their time lobbying for a single Top Lobbying Spenders (2017) client over a three-month period. ​ U.S. Chamber of Commerce: $82 million ○​ Has spent over $150 million in some How to Spot a Lobbyist? years ​ Lobbyists and lobbying firms are required to ​ Other major spenders include: register with the Secretary of the US Senate ○​ National Association of Realtors and the Clerk of the US House of ○​ Business Roundtable Representatives within 45 days of making ○​ Pharmaceutical Research and official contact with the president of the US, Manufacturers of America vice president, a member of Congress, or certain federal officials. Pros and Cons of Interest Groups ​ The list of registered lobbyists is a matter of Positives: public record. ​ Provide voter education ​ Lobbyists are required to disclose their ​ Offer expert insight on complex issues activities of trying to persuade officials or ​ Help inform policy makers influence policy decisions at the federal Potential Negatives: level. ​ Money may have disproportionate influence ​ Wealthy industries may gain outsized power Biggest Lobbying Groups ​ Can create self-reinforcing cycle of ​ Trade associations and special interests influence often hire their own lobbyists. ​ Some of the most influential lobbying groups in American politics are those that What does a Lobbyist do? represent the US Chamber of Commerce, the National Association of Realtors, the (Article) AARP, and the National Rifle Association. What a Lobbyist Does Loopholes in Lobbying Law ​ Lobbyists are hired and paid by special ​ The Lobbying Disclosure Act has been interest groups, companies, nonprofits, criticized for containing what some feel is a groups of citizens, and even school districts loophole that allows some lobbyists to avoid to exert influence over elected officials at all having to register with the federal levels of government. government.  ​ For example, a lobbyist who does not work ​ Of the 100 organizations that spend the on behalf of a single client for more than most on lobbying, 95 consistently represent 20% of their time does not need to register business. or file disclosures. ​ While it is true that even in the more ​ The American Bar Association has pluralist 1950s and 1960s, political proposed eliminating the so-called 20% representation tilted towards the well-off, rule. lobbying was almost balanced by today’s standards. Portrayal in the Media ​ Labor unions were much more important, ​ Lobbyists have long been painted in a and the public interest groups of the 1960s negative light because of their influence were much more significant actors. over policymakers. ​ To the extent that businesses did lobby in ​ This type of lobbying is not exactly an equal the 1950s and the 196s (typically through opportunity activity. associations), they were clumsy and ​ One person, one vote does not apply when ineffective. the great body of citizens is ​ The evolution of business lobbying from a under-represented in the halls of Congress sparse reactive force to a ubiquitous and compared to the well-financed, highly increasingly proactive one is among the organized special interest groups, most important transformations in American notwithstanding the often plausible politics over the last 40 years. objectives of such groups. ​ Probing the history of this transformation reveals that there is no ‘normal’ level of Lobbying Controversies business lobbying in American democracy. ​ In 2012, Republican and former House ​ Rather, business lobbying has built itself up Speaker was accused of lobbying but not over time, and the self-reinforcing quality of registering his activities with the corporate lobbying has increasingly come to government. overwhelm every other potentially ​ Former lobbyist Jack Abramoff pleaded countervailing force. guilty in 2006 to charges of mail fraud, tax ​ It has also fundamentally changed how evasion, and conspiracy in a broad scandal corporations interact with the government- that implicated nearly two dozen people, rather than trying to keep the government including former House Majority Leader out of its business (as they did for a long Tom DeLay. time), companies are now increasingly ​ Former president Barack Obama came bringing the government in as a partner, under fire for taking what appeared to be looking to see what the country can do for contradictory approaches to lobbyists. them. ​ Lobbyists would then go on to spend the Do Lobbyists Do Any Good? 1980s teaching companies about the ​ John F. Kennedy described the work of importance of political engagement. lobbyists in a positive light, saying they are ​ But it could take time for them to become "expert technicians capable of examining fully convinced. complex and difficult subjects in clear, ​ To make the sale, lobbyists had to go understandable fashion." against the long-entrenched notion in ​ Kennedy's ringing endorsement is just one corporate boardrooms that politics was a voice in the ongoing debate about the necessary evil to be avoided if possible. perhaps undue influence wrought by ​ To get corporations to invest fully in politics, monied interests. lobbyists had to convince companies that Washington could be a profit center. ​ They had to convince them that lobbying How Corporate Lobbyists was not just about keeping the government far away - it could also be about drawing the Conquered American government close. ​ As companies became more politically Democracy (Article) active and comfortable during the late 1980s and the 1990s, their lobbyists ​ Today, the biggest companies have upward became more politically visionary. of 100 lobbyists representing them, allowing ​ For example, pharmaceutical companies them to be everywhere, all the time. had long opposed the idea of the ​ For every dollar spent on lobbying by labor government adding a prescription drug unions and public interest groups together, benefit to Medicare, on the theory that this large corporations and their associations would give government bargaining power now spend $34.  through bulk purchasing, thereby reducing the drug industry profits. ​ But sometime around 2000, industry lobbyists dreamed up the bold idea of proposing and supporting what became Medicare Part D - a prescription drug benefit, but on which explicitly forbade bulk purchasing - an estimated $205 billion benefit to companies over a 10 year period. ​ What makes today so very different from the 70s is that corporations now have the resources to play offense and defense simultaneously on almost any top-priority issue. ​ After being surveyed on the reasons why their companies maintained a Washington office, corporate lobbyists’ top reason was “to protect the company against changes in government policy.” ​ While reversing history is obviously impossible, there is value in appreciating how much things have changed. ​ And there are ways to bring back some balance: investing more in the government, especially Congress, would give leading policymakers resources to hire and retain the most experienced and expert staff, and reduce their reliance on lobbyists. ​ Also, organizations that advocate for less well-resourced positions could use more support. ​ If history teaches anything, it's that the world does not need to look as it does today.