RDL-2-UNIT-2-1 (1) PDF - Silliman University Senior High School

SILLIMAN UNIVERSITY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL ACCOUNTANCY, BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT (ABM) STRAND HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES (HUMMS) STRAND ARTS AND DESIGN (A&D) TRACK RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE 2 (RDL 2) | PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 1ST SEMESTER SCHOOL YEAR 2024 - 2025 UNIT 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Content Standard The learners demonstrate understanding of: 1. The formulation of conceptual framework 2. The research hypotheses (if appropriate) 3. The definition of terms as used in the study Performance Standard The learners should be able to: 1. Formulate clearly conceptual framework, research hypotheses (if appropriate), and define terms used in study 2. Present objectively written review of related literature and conceptual framework Most Essential Learning Competencies 1. Illustrates and explain the conceptual framework 2. Defines terms used in study 3. Lists research hypothesis (if appropriate) 4. Presents written review of related literature and conceptual framework TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 7: The Review Process...........................................................................3 Definition of Literature Review............................................................................ 3 Purposes of Reviewing a Literature.......................................................................3 Preparing a Literature Review.............................................................................. 4 Conducting a Review of Literature........................................................................7 Chapter 8: The Standard Citation and Referencing Styles..................................10 General Writing Style Format Tips......................................................................11 APA Referencing Guide......................................................................................12 Chapter 9: Ethical Standards in Research Writing............................................. 13 Five Principles of Research Ethics (Smith, 2003).................................................. 16 On Plagiarism................................................................................................... 17 Ways of Avoiding Plagiarism.............................................................................. 18 On Authorship.................................................................................................. 19 Chapter 10: The Review of Related Literature................................................... 20 Related Literature............................................................................................. 20 How to Write a Literature Review (Fink, 2009)..................................................... 22 Tips in Writing the Review of Related Literature.................................................. 23 Review of Related Literature Examples............................................................... 24 Chapter 11: The Review of Related Studies....................................................... 27 Related Studies................................................................................................. 27 Chapter 12: The Conceptual / Theoretical Framework.......................................34 What is a Framework?....................................................................................... 34 Theoretical Framework......................................................................................35 Conceptual Framework...................................................................................... 36 Paradigm of the Study....................................................................................... 36 Chapter 13: The Hypothesis and Assumptions of the Study............................... 43 Hypothesis of the Study..................................................................................... 43 Assumptions of the Study.................................................................................. 45 Chapter 14: Definition of Terms....................................................................... 47 Writing Definitions............................................................................................47 Definition of Terms........................................................................................... 47 REFERENCES...................................................................................................50 Chapter 7: The Review Process Definition of Literature Review Literature review is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other researchers have written on a certain topic. It can be a partial component of a research undertaking but it can also stand alone as a self-contained review of writings on a subject. Purposes of Reviewing a Literature 1. It builds the confidence of the researcher as he or she fully understands the variables being studied. 2. It shows similar studies conducted which, in turn, become the springboard of discussion as the researcher may agree or disagree with the current results. 3. Fellow researchers will be the objectivity of the study as they read a review of literature and related sources similar in research or conceptual framework. 4. Reviewing a body of literature on the topic makes the research study empirical. Characteristics of a Good Literature Review A. Delimits clearly the subject matter to be reviewed B. Covers all important relevant literature C. Is up-to-date D. Provides an insightful analysis of the ideas and conclusions in the literature E. Points out similarities and differences, and strengths and weaknesses in the literature F. Identifies gaps in the literature for future research G. Clarifies the context for which the literature is important Preparing a Literature Review 1. Choosing a topic. It is a daunting and difficult task to select a certain topic. It is said that the main problem of a research paper is to identify the problem. Therefore, it is best to read extensively on the topic, until the specific problem is discerned and finally chosen. Here are some practical tips in selecting a topic to investigate: a. A thorough analysis of the present situation should be done. The issues, concerns, or even questions at hand can lead to a very feasible topic to investigate. b. It is said that the researcher himself or herself is the first person who benefits from his or her research. Therefore, he or she has to look into himself or herself, his or her own experiences as student, son, sibling, and friend, among others, without losing track of his or her own area of professional interest. c. Reading the literature can further confirm a topic or even open up a new one. d. The Internet is a powerful tool that can be used to look into a topic which is new or rarely explored. e. A habit of visiting the school library can be beneficial for a researcher. f. A discussion with classmates or even with teachers and other professionals can yield new ideas and insights. 2. Selecting credible sources. References come in different sorts and shapes. Hence, it must be remembered that as a researcher, the critical evaluation of sources is crucial to the credibility of one’s research. Because of the enormous number of sources that can be found in the Internet and libraries, choosing the most credible ones can be a tedious task. When evaluating the credibility sources, it is important to ask the following (Perfecto, Paterno, & Pison, 2011): a. Who published it? b. Who wrote it? c. For whom is it written? d. Is the information current? e. Does the author provide their sources? f. What type of publication is it? g. How is it reviewed? h. Is there any bias? These questions help establish the credibility of a source. The more information the researcher knows about the resource material, the more credible it becomes. Aside from answers to these questions, it is important to establish credibility based on the type of source. A basic tenet to follow in selecting sources is adherence to the hierarchy of sources shown below: From More authoritative sources (specialized) To Less authoritative sources (general) a. Academic journals b. Scholarly books c. Theses / Dissertations d. Document and Vertical File e. Specialized Magazines / Reference Materials f. General Interest Magazines and Newspapers g. General Encyclopedia In the hierarchy of sources, the degree of authority and credibility of a source heavily depends on the level of review the material has gone through. Academic journals are considered most credible compared to others because of the rigorous review process that articles go through before being published. On the other hand, general references, such as encyclopedias and reference books, are less credible as information is not very specialized to a very specific topic of interest. In a researcher’s set of sources for the RRL, it is important to have academic journals, theses, and scholarly books as the majority of sources. The other types of sources at the lower part of the hierarchy can serve as supplementary sources. For internet sources, the same principles apply as the more specific the source, the more authoritative it becomes. Some tips in evaluating internet sources include the following: Governmental or educational sources are preferred than commercial ones (.gov,.edu, and.org extensions are preferred than.com sites) The presence of ads on a website means it is a commercial site, which makes it less credible Authored documents are preferred than non-authored ones (check author credibility for this) Documents that are also available in print are preferred over those only available online Recently updated websites (check the date) are better Websites that document their claims (citations, bibliography) are more credible compared to those without sources Popular sites that disseminate fake news and misinformation must be avoided. Remember that the internet is simply a research tool. It is not a substitute for the rigorous discipline of scholarly research. Ultimately, a good review of literature has its foundation on credible and acceptable research materials (Perfecto, Paterno, & Pison, 2011) 3. Organizing the content and structure of literature review. A researcher should demonstrate his or her intellectual ability to recognize relevant information and synthesize or evaluate it according to the tentative research questions. Key points to consider in the review of related literature: a. The literature review is not a summary of literature read, but rather an exposition of background knowledge for further search. b. The selected literature can be placed in various sections of the research study. Some can be placed in the introduction, while others can be included in the literature review section or the discussion of results. c. An intelligent synthesis of the literature must be presented in the research paper. d. An effective and practical management of collected literature will facilitate both the analysis and synthesis of literature. In a literature review, one should do the following: a. Group research studies and other relevant literature according to a common theme. b. Summarize each item of the literature appropriately according to its significance. c. Compare and evaluate each item of the literature. d. Provide topic sentences at the beginning of paragraphs. e. Summarize sentences at the end of each section to help the reader understand the main issues. Conducting a Review of Literature Conducting the review of literature involves three steps: 1. Looking for relevant materials. Materials relevant to the research are those that carry information about the topic or variables of the study. These materials can be found in the library, on the internet, or even at home. Systematic skimming can be conducted to identify related literature or studies. Some guide questions that can help in evaluating literature and related studies are as follows: a. What are the main ideas and contributions that form the core of the literature? b. Which papers are important and which ones are not? c. Have there been controversies in the cited studies and how have they been resolved? d. What are the common assumptions made in the articles or books being reviewed? e. What are the current deficiencies or mistakes and unresolved issues? f. Are there important connections to other topics? g. Has the emphasis been more empirical or theoretical? Why is it so? 2. Actual Reading. Once the relevant materials are gathered, actual reading through analytical reading and comparative reading should be done. The value of highlighting or annotating with the use of various symbols as discussed in Practical Research 1 is evident in this step. One needs to do analytical reading to understand what the literature is saying about the topic or variables. The topic or the variables must be defined and discussed thoroughly. For example, the variable is the level of confidence. Thus, its meaning, illustration, types, levels, ways of improvement, hindrance to its development, and physical manifestations, among others, must be looked into during the analytical process. After considering an adequate number of authors writing on the same topic, factors or variables, the authors’ commonalities and differences of views must be noted as well. 3. Note-Taking. This process is very important in the review of literature. It can help the researcher in the actual analysis of the literature read. The output comes in the form of written key terminologies and phrases or sentences. Using a note card with the format like the example below can facilitate the management of information. Source: _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Significant Information: ____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Variables: ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Type: _____________________________________ The source pertains to a bibliographical entry to be included in the literature review, which must follow a specific citation style (APA, MLA, or Chicago). The significant information is a quoted, paraphrased, or summarized entry. It is the actual text you will be writing in the literature review. An in-text citation should be included as well. The variables must identify the variable/s discussed in the entry that are relevant to the present research study. The type indicates whether the information taken is a quote, paraphrase, or summary. To make the research more empirical, the research needs an adequate number of analyzed relevant literature. After collecting an acceptable number of literature per variable from various authors, further analysis and synthesis can be easily conducted if these reference sources are properly managed. After arranging the index or noted cards according to the variable, analysis and synthesis can commence. Chapter 8: The Standard Citation and Referencing Styles In research writing, there are many different style guides that are followed by researchers. However, the three most common styles used at present are the Modern Language Association (MLA) Style, American Psychological Association (APA) Style, and Chicago or Turabian Style. These styles govern the different aspects of writing a research paper, such as bibliography formats, in-text citation rules, and even grammar. Before an in-depth discussion about the three, consider the following general writing tips that are applicable across any writing or citation style, General Writing Tips 1. Other literature reviews and related articles should be used as guide quotations Quotations are extremely rare in scientific writing. Technical language is used if exact wording or definition of a term is needed. 2. Using the first-person point of view should be avoided. This point of view is not preferred in order to avoid too much personalization in writing, show less bias, and be more formal. WRONG: “I will show that the literature on treating juvenile murderers is sparse and suffers from the same problems as the general literature. Unfortunately, I have found that most of the treatment results are based on clinical case reports. RIGHT: “The literature on treating juvenile murderers is sparse and suffers the same problems as the general literature. Most of the treatment results are based on clinical case reports.” 3. Using colloquial, informal, or slang words, should be limited to specific cases, or the study of slang itself. Academically appropriate language should be used. Examples: "conducted a study" instead of "did a study" "examined" instead of "looked at" "utilize" instead of "use" "great deal" instead of "a lot" 4. The paper should be organízed according to-topics and not by chronology. The paper should be built with a clear thesis. Good writing should have logic and organized evidence for the argument or theory. 5. It should be concise. Unnecessary words, phrases, and sentences should be deleted to improve the writing. Scientific writing should be cóncise and straight to the point. 6. Revise and rewrite. Good writing takes hard work. However, give yourself a break. Relax or take a rest. Time away from the paper provides perspective regarding organization and allows the researcher the opportunity to find technical errors. 7. It is imperative to develop good citation habits. It is plagiarism to use other writers’ words and ideas and submit them as one’s own. General Writing Style Format Tips 1. If names are the first part of the citation, they are capitalized and listed (i.e., last name first, and then the initials of the first name/s). 2. Separate names with a comma, and use an ampersand (&) before the last author. 3. Use Ed. for one editor and Eds. for multiple editors. 4. Capitalize the first word in titles and subtitles, and proper names. 5. Place of publication should include the name of the city. 6. If you are citing a book chapter or section, you must indicate the pages. Use p. for a single page and pp. for multiple pages. 7. 7. Put a space after the p. and put a dash (-) between the numbers. APA Referencing Guide The American Psychological Association or APA style is commonly used in the fields of Social Sciences, Philosophy, Education, and Economics. Because of the practicality it brings and the relatively popular usage, many institutions prescribe the use of APA style as the standard for writing research papers. A research paper in APA style should contain the following four main sections: The title page includes the research title, the author's name, and the author's institutional affiliation (e. the university the author attends or his or her location). Pages after the title page should also have a page header–which is the shortened version of the research title–rendered flush left and a page number rendered flush right. The abstract presents a concise summary of the research study in 150 to 250 words. The main body contains the main text or content of the paper. APA style is known for the use of the author-year method for in-text citations. In this method, the author's last name and the source's ýear of publication must appear in parenthetical citations in the text or the main body. The list of references at the end of the paper should be labeled as "References." Take a look at the following examples of the common types of bibliographic entries in APA format: Chitty, D. (2023). Do lemmings commit suicide? Beautiful Book by a single author hypotheses and ugly facts. Oxford University Press. Rosellini, G., & Worden, M. (2004). Of course you’re angry: A Book by two or more authors guide to dealing with the emotions of substance abuse (Rev. ed.). Hazelden. Children’s Express. (1999). Voices from the future: Our children Book by a corporate author tell us about violence in America. Crown. Book by an unknown author The Korean. (1974). Crescent Books. Moen, P., Elder, G., & Luscher, K. (Eds). (1995). Examining the Book with editors lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development. American Psychological Association. Chapter 9: Ethical Standards in Research Writing It is a rule and principle that any written work, be it a book, magazine article, research paper for a degree program, or even a research paper for an agency, is the intellectual property of the author. The reader assumes that the author is the sole originator of the written work and that any text or idea borrowed from other writers are clearly identified as such through established scholarly conventions. Moreover, it is assumed that the ideas borrowed or used are accurately interpreted and paraphrased to the best of the author’s abilities The literature review is the way to look at the nast: to assess the body of literature, to synthesize previous works, and to locate the gaps in order to prepare for the future in directing the research process and formulating additional questions. The following reminders must be taken into account for ethical research writing: 1. Honesty with professional colleagues a. Report findings with complete honesty b. Do not intentionally misinform, mislead, and/or misinterpret. c. Give appropriate credit when using other people's work. d. Avoid plagiarism by fully acknowledging all content belonging to others. 2. Protection from Harm a. Researchers should not expose their participants to physical or psychological harm. b. Participants should not be exposed to unusual stress, embarrassment, or loss or self-esteem as a result of their participation. c. In case the study contains a certain amount of stress or psychological discomfort, the participants should be aware of it and must explicitly express their consent to participate. 3. Right to Privacy a. Researchers should protect the privacy of their participants. b. The nature and quality of individual participant's performance should be kept strictly confidential. c. Researchers should also consider the privacy of the participants by protecting the electronic data containing their confidential responses from hackers. To make research of any kind that is acceptable and within the bounds of what is ethical, the following must be addressed (Fennell, 2017): 1. In Authorship. The person who wrote the entire paper must be given due credit. An author is an individual who made a significant intellectual contribution to the study. In case of group authors, their names must also be written as authors. There are three criteria to be met to be considered as an author: substantial contribution to the study conception and design, data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation; drafting or revising the article for intellectual content; and approval of the final version Some unethical practices in authorship are Misconduct. This includes the aspect of the roles played by the authors and the amount of their contributions. Listings. Authors who deserve to be listed are not listed, while those who are not supposed to be listed are included in the list of authors. Robbery. An individual's original idea is taken by another individual who appears to be the author. Permit. An individual is listed as author without his or her consent. To avoid unethical practices in authorship, there must be a meeting of the researchers to clarify their roles and functions. The result of the meeting must be put in writing for future verification. 2. Conflict of Interest. Transparency and objectivity are essential in the conduct of research. Conflict of interest usually arises in situations that involve financial aspects such as honorarium, royalties and the like, as well as in dual commitments, competing issues, and competing loyalties. These conflicts exist due to personal relationships, academic competition, and even the passion to learn which can adversely affect the objectivity of the researcher and the entire company for which the research was commissioned. For instance, the researcher is a brother of the owner of a pharmaceutical company for which the research was commissioned. There is clearly conflict of interest in this case. 3. Plagiarism. It is a malpractice where an author deliberately uses the research work of other authors without proper citation or permission. Forms of plagiarism: Literal copying. Often called the "copy-and-paste” method, this is copying the exact words, phrases, or sentences without permission. This can be avoided by putting quotation marks around the "copied" texts and citing the original source in-text and in the list of references. Substantial copying. This is using research materials, processes, tables, and instruments of other researchers. Paraphrase plagiarism. This is using another author's ideas in a way that the material essence is the same, without is not copied word for word but the general concept and proper citation. Text-recycling. Also called "self-plagiarism," this is when parts of an author's own published work are reused or reproduced in his or her new publication without citing the original source. 4. Simultaneous Submission. It is the responsibility of a researcher.to ensure that the paper he or she is submitting for publication is original and has never been published before. Avoid submitting the same paper to two or more publications at the same time. It is ethical to submit a paper to one publication and wait for its decision. If the paper is not accepted, that is the time the researcher may submit it to a new publication. 5. Fraud. It is unethical practice when the researcher published data and results without the actual conduct of research. This can either be fabrication (making up data or a paper without actually conducting an investigation) or falsification (manipulation of data, processes, tables, and others for personal gain). 6. Salami Slicing. It is the unethical practice of dividing a research paper into parts or subsections and sending these parts for publication. Five Principles of Research Ethics (Smith, 2003) These are the five recommendations given by the American Psychological Association (APA) Science Directorate to help researchers on ethical quandaries: 1. Discuss intellectual property frankly. The "publish or perish" mindset will cause a big trouble when it comes to who gets credits in authorship. It is very important that before starting any working relationship, important matters related to it must be placed on the table for discussion. Written documents, as a result of this meeting, must be agreed upon by everyone. 2. Be conscious of multiple roles. One example is when an instructor of research also serves as an adviser for a research paper of his or her student. The different roles of being an instructor and research adviser must be properly defined and separated. 3. Follow informed consent rules. Any participant in research must be properly informed of his or her involvement in totality. The participants must be informed of the following: 1) purpose, expected duration, and procedures of research; 2) the right to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research and its consequences; 3) foreseeable factors such as potential risks, discomfort, and even benefits when they participate; 4) limits of confidentiality such as data coding, disposal, sharing and archiving, and even when confidentiality must be broken; and 5) the people who the participants can contact for inquiries. 4. Respect confidentiality and privacy. In observing confidentiality and privacy, the following are included: discussion of the limits of confidentiality; knowledge on Republic Acts and other national laws; taking practical security measures; thinking about data sharing before research begins; and understanding the limits of the Internet. 5. Tap into ethics resources. It is very important that any individual who involvés himself in research must know their obligations and the resources relevant to ethics to avoid. On Plagiarism According to Carver et al. (2011), "plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit, including those obtained through confidential review of others' research proposals and manuscripts." Plagiarism is considered as the most common form of scientific and academic misconduct. There are two forms of plagiarism in terms of authorship. The first one is self-plagiarism in which the author copies large parts of one of their previous manuscripts word for word. The second form is s duplicate plagiarism in which the author submits a previously-published work as if it is an original manuscript. Based on the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines or RA 8293, the term "published works" means works which, with the consent of the authors, are made available to the public in such a way that these works can be sourced from a place and time individually chosen by them. Needless to say, the availability of such copies is ensured, so as to satisfy the reasonable requirements of the public. Therefore, the author's published materials, especially their copyrights, are protected by this law. Furthermore, as stated in Section 178 of RA 8293 or the Rules on Copyright Ownership, copyright ownership shall be governed by the following rules: 1. In the case of original literary and artistic works, copyright shall belong to the author of the work. 2. In the case of works of joint authorship, the co-authors shall be the original owners of the copyright and in the absence of agreement, their rights shall be governed by the rules on co-ownership. 3. If, however, a work of joint authorship consists of parts that can be used separately, the author of each part can be identified, the author of each part shall be the original owner of the copyright of that part that he or she has created. These are the bases of ownership of any published article or material in the form of books, magazines, and the like, as well as those that are in electronic format. Using the whole or parts of these published materials without recognizing the author or authors is an act of plagiarism which has corresponding consequences. The law states that in determining the number of years of imprisonment and the amount of fine, the court shall consider the value of the plagiarized material that the defendant has used or reproduced, and the damage that the copyright owner has suffered by reason of the infringement. The following are considered acts of plagiarism: a. When an indívidual is claiming that he or she is the author or originator of another person's work. b. When copying the whole written work or even words, ideas, or sentences from someone without acknowledging him or her. c. When one fails to put quotation marks on a quotation or excerpt from an outside source if it is being copied word per word d. When one gives incorrect information about the source of a quotation e. When changing words or ideas from a source without giving credit to the real author or source f. When changing words but conveying the idea and using the sentence structure of an original source without acknowledging the author. Ways of Avoiding Plagiarism It is a common error of most inexperienced researchers to plagiarize or copy the work of others. Plagiarism can be avoided by following these guidelines: 1. Citation. The complete source or reference must be placed after the copied phrase or sentence using the prescribed format of citations (e.g., APA, MLA, or Chicago/Turabian style). 2. Paraphrasing. This is a process by which the information to be lifted is rephrased into one's own words or based on how you understood the information. Verbatim narration should be avoided. If it could not be avoided, use the same words from the source and put quotation marks. 3. Quoting. When using materials from one's own former writings, one has to quote himself or herself or paraphrase to avoid self-plagiarism. "Block quotes" or quotes of more than 40 words should be avoided since it is already long. 4. Referencing. This is done in conjunction with citations. The prescribed format must be followed for this. On Authorship There are many issues regarding authorship such as when a beginner writer asks a professional author to edit the former's works. After editing, the latter will include his or her name as one of the authors. Also, in some cases, a graduate student who passed his or her defense will be asked by his or her adviser to let him or her publish the said thesis with his or her name as the researcher. The following are the different forms of authorships (Strange, 2011): 1. Coercion authorship. This form uses intimidation to gain authorship. It happens when a senior researcher or writer pressures a junior counterpart or a student to include his or her name on a paper to which the former has not contributed enough to qualify for authorship. 2. Honorary authorship. This is also called a guest or. gift authorship accorded to an established author or friend, to gain favor, and/or to give the paper a greater sense of legitimacy. It is still quite common for some researchers to add well-known senior investigators as co-authors of their papers, even though these senior researchers may not have made significant contributions to the paper. 3. Mutual support authorship. Two or more investigators include their names as co-authors of each other's papers to enhance their perceived productivity. 4. Ghost authorship. This involves papers that are written by people who are not included as authors or are not acknowledged. This form of authorship is typical in the pharmaceutical industry in which professional writers are often hired. 5. Denial of authorship. A work is published without acknowledging or bestowing authorship on people who made substantial contributions to the work. Chapter 10: The Review of Related Literature Related Literature Related literature is also called conceptual literature. Gathering literature related to the research is very important to clarify the different variables being studied. The related literature removes any vagueness surrounding concepts central to the study. If the review of related literature and studies are gathered appropriately and adequately, the different research variables and the delimitation of the study are determined. The indicators per variable are likewise identified and objectively established. All indicators are clearly based on articles read from different published materials such as reference books, textbooks, manuals, encyclopedias, dictionaries, bulletins, broadsheets, journals, and periodicals, among others. In addition to these printed sources, there are also electronic references from the Internet. In a way, the purpose of gathering adequate related literature is to boost the confidence of the researcher. He or she enriches his or her knowledge and comprehension of the variables being studied. In this way, he or she will be able to address questions that may be raised by his or her colleagues, members of the panels during the proposal or thesis defense, or even by readers. The major variable is better understood by identifying sub-variables and each sub-variable is further explained by its indicators. Example of major variable: Study habits Examples of sub-variable: Time spent studying; methods of studying; place of study Examples of indicators for methods of studying: Using books and other reference materials, writing important key terms and phrases; memorizing definitions; doing homework; asking parents about unclear concepts According to the American Psychological Association (2001), review articles (also called literature review in research papers) are "critical evaluations of materials previously published. By organizing, integrating, and evaluating such materials, the author of a review article considers the progress of current research towards clarifying a problem. In a sense, a review article isa "tutorial" in which the author defines and clarifies the problem; summarizes previous investigations in order to inform the reader of the state of current research; identifies relations, contradictions, gaps and inconsistencies in the literature; and suggests the next step in solving the problem." The different variables used in the study are the focus of the literature search. The title, statement of the problem, scope and delimitation, as well as the paradigm of the study are the elements that give the researcher an idea of the relevance of the variables to his or her investigation. It is often very useful for the researcher to have tools by which he or she can take down notes as he or she reads different pieces of literature. Pieces of information such as the variables and their sub-variables, excerpts from the main text, and of course, important ideas from the references must be written down for a systematic organization of information. Index cards can be used as a tool for this exercise. The number of materials to be gathered for the literature review depends on the researcher's judgment. If he or she believes that the important concepts and variables have been adequately explained and that enough indicators have been established, then the review of related literature is considered sufficient. It is a traditional practice that the review of related literature is subdivided into foreign and local publications or source materials. It is highly recommended that the researcher use the different variables and sub-variables being studied as subtitles in the review. The discussion of the variables must be arranged according to how they are presented in the statement of the problem. This is very beneficial to the researcher and future investigators planning to study similar problems as there is a clear and logical organization of the variables under investigation. With this system, the research proponent/s can systematically define the important concepts and variables as well as the discussions, descriptions, and other bits of information gathered from the different sources. When the related literature is arranged systematically, the construction of the research instrument, such as a questionnaire, will be easier since the indicators are presented logically and sequentially. In this age of globalization, the related literature should be found in the works of experts as published in refereed journals. Refereed journals are also known as peer-reviewed journals. Expert readers or peers who are recognized authorities on the topic are tapped to review the written works of researchers to determine if they meet international standards, which include reliability and timeliness. Refereed journals are published nationally and internationally. How to Write a Literature Review (Fink, 2009) A literature review is a specific type of research paper that focuses on published literature on a given topic. It is often the first step in doing original research, scientific, or otherwise. It is more than a mere summary of the literature, however, as it presents analyses, patterns, and critiques of individual sources, groups of sources, and the body of literature as a whole (Fink, 2009). Not to be confused with a book review, a literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources (e.g-, dissertations, Conference proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of each work. The purpose is to offer an overview of significant literature published on a topic that critically analyzes a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles. A reader of a literature review gains an understanding of trends, issues, unresolved questions, controversies, and the importance of the scholarly knowledge related to a specific question (topic). The literature review format can vary by discipline, according to the purpose of the review, or to the format or style adopted by the publisher. A review may be an end in itself or a preface to and rationale for engaging in primary research. A review is usually a required part of study grants and research proposals and often a chapter in theses and dissertations. The following are elements included when writing a literature review: 1. An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of writing the literature review 2. Division of works under review into categories (e.g., those in support of a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely) 3. Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others 4. Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research Tips in Writing the Review of Related Literature 1. Openweb sources (a person's private home page, as opposed to peer-reviewed online journals or licensed database sites that provide access to scholarly works) are not usually considered reliable sources for academic research. They should be used sparingly, if at all, and only after careful research into the sponsors of a site are done. In other words, it is not advisable to use generally available Internet search engines for your literature review. Only those with authors and official addresses must be used. 2. Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the subject under review. It is suggested that the discussion follows the arrangement of variables as stated in the statement of the problem. This arrangement must appear consequently in the paradigm of the study. 3. Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration. A comparative analysis of data or ideas from various authors must be done to show the similarities and differences of these pieces of information. 4. Identify new ways to to interpret and shed light on any gaps in previous research. 5. Resolve conflicts between or among previous studies arising from obviously or seemingly contradictory ideas. 6. Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort. 7. Point the way forward for further research. 8. Place one's original work (in the case of theses or dissertations) in the context of existing literature. Remember, however, that a literature review does not present a new primary scholarship. Review of Related Literature Examples Smith, J. (2019). The Evolution of Digital Marketing and Its Impact on Small Enterprises. Journal of Business Innovation, 15(2), 123-145. Smith’s article traces the development of digital marketing tools and strategies over the past decade, focusing particularly on their application in small enterprises. The author highlights how small businesses can leverage cost-effective digital platforms such as social media and email marketing to increase their visibility and competitiveness. The study emphasizes the adaptability of digital tools for businesses with limited budgets, providing empirical data through case studies showing significant revenue growth after adopting these strategies. Annotation: This source is highly relevant because it offers practical insights into how digital marketing supports small enterprises, a key element in understanding the broader context of the research problem. The article is critically valuable due to its use of real-world case studies, which strengthens the reliability of the conclusions. However, a limitation is that it focuses mainly on businesses in developed countries, leaving a gap in understanding how these strategies apply to small enterprises in developing nations. Brown, A., & Taylor, M. (2020). The Psychology of Online Consumer Behavior: Implications for Small Business Marketing. Psychology & Business Quarterly, 12(4), 77-98. Brown and Taylor explore the psychological aspects of online consumer behavior, emphasizing factors such as trust, urgency, and social proof. The authors argue that small businesses can enhance consumer engagement by incorporating these psychological triggers into their digital marketing strategies. They present evidence from consumer surveys that demonstrate how businesses using techniques such as user-generated content and limited-time offers can influence purchasing decisions. Annotation: This study is relevant because it directly addresses the consumer behavior aspect of digital marketing, offering insights into why certain strategies may work better than others. The strength of this study lies in its use of psychological theory to explain consumer actions, which provides a theoretical framework for understanding marketing effects. However, the article’s focus on psychological factors limits its applicability to businesses without the technical means to implement such strategies, presenting a gap in practical implementation. Mendoza, R. (2021). Visual Storytelling in Digital Campaigns: Creative Strategies for Small Business Branding. Journal of Visual Communication, 9(3), 210-225. Mendoza examines how visual storytelling can enhance small business branding in digital spaces. The author discusses how elements like imagery, color schemes, and typography can be used to build emotional connections with consumers. The article provides a detailed analysis of successful branding campaigns that employed visual storytelling techniques to differentiate themselves in competitive markets. Annotation: This article is relevant for exploring the role of creativity in digital marketing, an essential component of effective small business branding. The critical value of this source lies in its detailed analysis of visual storytelling, which provides practical examples of successful campaigns. However, the article does not address how businesses with limited resources can access professional design services, which presents a gap in the literature on accessibility for smaller enterprises. Gonzales, M. (2018). Small Business Challenges in the Digital Age: A Case Study of Philippine Start-ups. Entrepreneurship in Southeast Asia, 7(1), 33-50. Gonzales presents a case study of small businesses in the Philippines transitioning to digital platforms. The study highlights common challenges such as limited access to digital literacy and technology, while also discussing government initiatives aimed at supporting digital entrepreneurship. The article includes qualitative data from interviews with small business owners, offering insights into their experiences in adopting digital marketing strategies. Annotation: This source is particularly relevant to understanding the local context of small business challenges in the digital economy. The article’s critical strength lies in its focus on real-world challenges and the inclusion of local government policies, making it directly applicable to similar research topics. However, a limitation of the study is that it relies heavily on qualitative data, which may not provide the comprehensive statistical analysis necessary for broader generalizations. Chapter 11: The Review of Related Studies Related Studies Determining whether the research is objective and empirically-based entails surveying previous studies that involve similar variables. The researcher should be reminded, however, that even if the same variables have been used previously, similar studies may vary in the delimitation in terms of sub-variables investigated or in terms of focus and purpose. In this regard, an adequate review of related studies is required. This serves as the basis of the analysis of results because it enables the researcher to compare and contrast his or her findings with those of past studies. The results of the study are verified by similar findings or negated by different findings or previous researchers. The studies can be in the form of thesis, dissertation, or journal article, among others. These are collectively called research literature. The gathered studies are related to the present research when: 1. They use the same variables, sub-variables, concepts or constructs; or 2. They have the same subject or topic of study. In writing a review of related studies, the following data must be indicated: 1. The name of the author, date and setting of the study 2. The title 3. The salient findings (which are the most important “ingredients” to include since the discussion of the variables and their relationship/s will be based on them The review of related literature (RRL) is different from the review of related studies (RRS). The RRL is composed of published materials that compare the study with existing knowledge on the research topic. This part defines, classifies, and facilitates objective comprehension of the variables being studied. The RRS, on the other hand, includes theses or dissertations on research topics studying the same variables. The findings from the previous studies define the researcher’s approach in measuring the variables. Related Studies Example 1 Attributes of Test Papers and Level of Performance of Students: Basis tor the Formulation of the Guidelines on Test Paper Construction (Cristobal, 2015) The findings in the study of Beverly Alford entitled, "Systematic Classroom Observation of the Quality of the Teacher Behavior and Student Engagement in Ethnically Diverse Pre- Kindergarten Through Second Grade Classroom" have significant bearing to the tertiary level: little to no variation existed in the activities in which young children were engaged in their classrooms, nor in the instructional practices utilized by their early childhood teachers. Accordingly, the study revealed few differences in student behavior and teacher practices by student sex, student ethnicity, grade level, English language proficiency, and/or economic status. Instruction in these classrooms was almost entirely standardized. However, three statistically significant findings showed that: (a) students taught by teachers rated as having a higher developmentally appropriate instructional practices (DAIP) score were more likely to be on-task and less likely to be off-task; (b) students taught by teachers with a higher DAIP score were significantly more likely to be working kinesthetically, answering teacher-posed questions, and freely exploring; and (c) students taught by teachers with a lower DAIP score were significantly more likely to be distracted and/or not engaging in activity. Study findings were significant. Despite research showing the unfavorable effects that highly teacher-centered, scripted classrooms have on young students' engagement and subsequent learning outcomes, students continue to be taught in the same way–one in which reaching a designated test score appears to be a singular ultimate objective. Another study by Phoung (20o9) that focused on the students behavior and achievement when classroom observation was conducted showed that close teacher-student relations and teacher self-reported use of good instructional practices predict positive student academic achievement. Interaction results indicate that the association between close teacher-student relations and student achievement is slightly stronger in classrooms with more academic achievement. A similar study by Akram (2010) revealed that the average rating of principals was at the intermediary level on four factors, namely the attitude toward students, subject mastery, teaching methodology and personal characteristics of teachers' job performance. The average rating of students was the lowest level on four factors, namely the attitude towards students, subject mastery, teaching methodology, and personal characteristics of teachers' job performance. There was no difference among the views of principals, teachers themselves, and students about teachers' performance on the factor of attitude toward students. The opinions of teachers themselves were the highest and those of students were the lowest. There was non-significant difference among the mean view scores of principals, teachers themselves, and students about teachers' performance on the fact of subject mastery. The mean perception scores of teachers were the highest and those of students were the lowest. There was a non-significant difference among the mean view scores of principals, teachers themselves, and students about teachers' performance, the factor of teaching methodology. The mean perception scores of teachers were the highest and those of students were the lowest. There was a highly significant difference among the mean view scores of principals, teachers themselves, and students about teachers' performance on the factor of personal characteristics. However, the mean view of principals, teachers themselves, and students were found different on the factor of teachers' personal characteristics. In this study, the evaluation techniques used are the administrator's clinical supervision, most specifically the classroom observation, and the perceptions of the students in the instructional competence of their instructors. These were done by rating them through an evaluation instrument and writing comments regarding the same. Related Studies Example 2 The Level of Awareness of the Nature and Importance of Various Programs on Corporate Social Responsibility Among Food Establishments (Cristobal & Montallana, 2016) In their study, Samuel and Saari (2008) noted that a recent survey showed that 86 percent of about 4,000 people aged 15 or older in Europe expressed a preference for purchasing a product from a company "engaged in activities to improve society" (Fleishman Hillard, "Consumers Demand Companies with a Conscience," London). In the UK, the Co-operative Bank report on ethical consumerism recently found that consumers expect more, as citizens, from business corporations. In the U.S., the San Francisco-based Business for Social Responsibility has been working since 1992 to help companies sustain their commercial success "in ways that demonstrate respect for ethical values, people, communities and the environment" and it already has 1,400 member-companies, including American Express, AT8T, Dupont, Ford, General Motors, Johnson and Johnson and Levi Strauss. "Even Wall Street has responded to this trend, with the Dow Jones launching a Sustainability Group Index in October 1999. The SGl rates companies for their success in managing economic, environmental, and social factors.” In the International Conference on risk management, assessment, and mitigation held in Bucharest (Muresan, et al, 2010), it was concluded that this distinct responsibility, ecologic responsibility, will determine a greater attention from the commercial societies regarding protecting the natural environment. Conceptually speaking, including an independent element within the general concept of social responsibility, together with the other four responsibility types, is justified by the actual evolution of society and by the complexity of ecological aspects which exceed the juridical responsibility, ecological or economical responsibility categories. The ecological responsibility of commercial companies refers to integrating the requests of protecting the natural environment within the politics and strategies of any commercial society. Many benefits from the corporate social responsibility endeavors were also identified based on the study conducted by Zadekin as cited by Samuel (2008) in the areas of marketing, shareholder value, human resources, and innovation. London-based Diageo plc reported that between 1994 and 1998, 22 cause-related marketing projects helped it raise $600,000 for causes while increasing sales of tracked brands by 17 percent. A recent study by Interbrand concluded that a full one-quarter of the world's total financial wealth is tied up in intangible assets such as reputation, brand equity, strategic positioning, alliances, knowledge, and the like. Monsanto's experience in introducing genetícally modified seeds dramatically illustrates the tremendous negative impact on stockholder value, brand equity, and reputation that can be caused when a company is perceived to be behaving in ways that are socially irresponsible. The National Leadership Council (Washington, D.C.) analyzed company-sponsored school-to-work programs and found a positive return on investment in most of the companies studied. Leading companies have discovered that working together with non-profit and government organizations to solve social problems can give them new insights and approaches to creating business opportunities as well. Solving community needs creates opportunities to develop ideas and demonstrate business technologies, to find and serve new markets, and to solve longstanding business problems (Kanter, 1999)." Ek (2009) conducted a study in the Czech Republic and the findings showed that 64% of the companies surveyed knew the CSR concept. Ninety nine percent of the companies considered active participation in CSR an important for the company. However, activities in this field should not outweigh the key mission-generating profit. Also according to the opinion of respondents, CSR activities of the companies should not replace the role and duties of the state. Eighty-four percent of the respondents planned to extend their activity. The result of the study of Tilakasari (2012) when he studied the level of awareness of six companies in Sri Lanka regarding corporate social responsibility found out the following: The six companies have the CSR concept and there is an increase in the consideration of social responsibility. Each company has a concept that describes sustainability in the community, and integration of special and environmental consideration. They showed the same profile on motivating CSR for social welfare and community development. The company with high CSR expenses has more commitment with long-term sustainability of the business. Also, a study of 25 companies by Dahlstrom (2006) found out that CSR has been good for the cooperation with their suppliers, and among other things, led to a higher quality and delivery accuracy. This is because the work with their code of conduct has led to an increased attendance rate in their factories while Becchetti (2004) found out that CSR is expected in principle to redirect the focus of the corporate activity from the maximization of shareholders to that of stakeholders interests. They observe that workers of socially responsible firms produce larger cakes but smaller portions of cakes go to shareholders. Lastly, a situational analysis about corporate social responsibility in Albania conducted by Gribisi and Rrembeci (2013) found out the following: the research showed that it is obvious that Albania has taken the first steps towards embracing initial CSR practices. Since Albania is part of the processes related to globalization and EU Integration, CSR becomes of paramount importance. Furthermore, the implementation of CSR standards serves as a means to create competitive advantage for Albanian businesses both regionally and in the wider European market, in addition to better cömpany image, risk management and increased value. Still, the findings brought some positive experiences such as Titan Group Professional School of Thumana and Bankers Petroleum Albania Ltd. Agricultural Support Initiative. In spite of the current challenges in implementing CSR legislation, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Energy (METE) is committed to promoting social and environmental standards as an added source of competitiveness and sustainable growth for Albanian companies in the local and the global market. UNDP is also promoting the CSR agenda among local actors in Albania. The most prominent achievements to date are the establishment of a local United Nations Global Compact Network, development of the Policy Paper on CSR, adoption of Corporate Governance Code for the unlisted companies, drafting of the National Action Plan on CSR and the relevant indicators, establishment of the Multi-Stakeholders Forum on CSR, adaptation of the ISO 26000 standards, training of journalists from local media and CSR prize award projects. The experts conducted a number of site visits and held meetings with business representatives from the targeted sectors of extractive industries as well as the relevant stakeholders and NGOS. The main issues covered during the interviews involved: 1) Brief history and activity of the company; 2) CSR impact and achievements in relation to staff, community, and environment; 3) cooperation with local governance units, central government and NGOs; 4) problems faced; and s) future plans. The findings showed that almost all companies are responsible for three main pillars of the CSR policy and actions such as staff/employees, community/society, and environment. Some companies are more responsive to some specific areas compared to the rest, but in general, all or them deal with CSR issues. Usually, Canadian companies operating in Albania have well-established CSR practices in their development strategy based on the best practices from their mother companies as well as the business-enabling environment in our country. Almost all companies are members of different business associations active in the country. One of the gaps noticed was the fact that the companies usually do not draft and publish any annual report related to the operations and CSR policy. Highlighting the importance of CSR application and its promotion by companies in Albania, extractive industries themselves must continue to share their experiences and work for visibility of their good practices inherited from the respective mother companies toward a positive spill-over effect in the areas where they are operating in Albania. Chapter 12: The Conceptual / Theoretical Framework What is a Framework? A framework is similar to a skeleton. It is a basic structure or frame of reference which is designed to support or enclose something (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). As a skeleton gives shape, form, and strength to the body so it can stand upright, so do the different concepts and theories. These concepts and theories serve as the building blocks (or the "skeleton") for the foundation or bases of the study. Theories and Concept To better understand framework in the context of research, two important terms must be clarified: "theory" and "concept" The word "theory" is derived from the Greek word, theoria, which means "vision". A theory is a conceptual invention that is used to describe, explain, predict, or understand a certain phenomenon. It defines non-observable constructs that are inferred from observable facts and events that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study. A theory describes the relationship/s among variables for purposes of explaining a current state or predicting future events. A theory, therefore, is-primarily concerned with determining cause-effect relationships. Thus, a good theory expands vision and guides thinking, professional practice and research. On the other hand, a concept is an abstract idea or general notion about a certain phenomenon, event, or process. It also constitutes complex thoughts and beliefs. Concepts are generally used within theories to clarify what the theory means. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework, which may be formulated from an existing theory or theories, serves as the foundation of the study. In such a case, the original paradigm that is used by the cited theorist can be fully adopted in the present study. It can also be adapted or modified since the researcher can add or subtract variables from the original framework, provided that the essence of the theory is maintained. In the formulation of a theoretical framework, relevant theories must be provided. The researcher cites and discusses related theories that serve as the foundation of the variables and the relationship between these theories to make the study more scientific and understandable especially to the readers. The researcher mentions theories, including the names of the authors, titles of their theories, theoretical principles, and their explanations. When this requirement has been satisfied, the' relationship of the cited established theory to the present study must be discussed in the concluding portion. Theoretical Framework Example 1 The Level of Awareness of the Nature and Importance of Various Programs on Corporate Social Responsibility Among Food Establishments (Cristobal & Montallana, 2016) This study is anchored on the theory of Bigg (2004) and Friedman (1970). The business ethics theory by Bigg is based on the wider social obligation and the moral duty that business has towards society. According to this theory, there are three (3) varied but interrelated ethical grounds. These are changing and emerging social responsiveness and social expectations to particular social problems; eternal and intrinsic values that are inspired by ethics and denoted by some normative and universal principles of social justice, fairness, and human rights; and corporate citizenship in which a corporation or a business establishment contributes to social well being. In this theory, CSR is viewed as philanthropic and ethical responsibilities rather than legal and economic responsibilities. While the shareholder valúe theory by Friedman (Freeman, 1984) argues that only the social responsibility of business is to develop its profits, it is believed by economists that the corporation owners as its managers, and stakeholders as agents have a fiduciary duty to serve the shareholders' interest rather than any others Thus, corporate social obligations are regarded often as ari strategic instrument for corporate competitive benefit and more profit gain. It is, therefore, noted that although the business enterprise's mission is to have profits, they should not forget giving back to the shareholders or clients the appropriate returns not only on the quality of their products but also in some other ways like attending to some obligations through the different programs that will benefit the community they are serving. Conceptual Framework The explanation of the scope and range of a concept or construct can be done even without a theory or, in some cases, with a combination of two or more theories which lead to a researcher's formulated framework. This is called a conceptual framework. It is largely based on theories or parts of a theory combined with parts of another theory, or on the intellectual synthesis of the various readings of the researcher. The conceptual framework relies on an understanding of concepts which clarify the paradigm and ideas that the research presents. Hence, a conceptual framework is a system of concepts, assumptions, or expectations to link one idea with another. It guides the researcher by giving clear directions to the research. Paradigm of the Study The result of a clear understanding of the conceptual or theoretical framework is a diagrammatic presentation of the study called the paradigm. Merriam-Webster (2006) defines paradigm as a pattern, model, or set of forms which contains particular elements. It is the researcher's scientific imagination expressed graphically by drawings or sketches. In a scientific work,the symbols must be specific in meaning. The usual figures used are regular shapes (rectangles, circles, and squares), lines, and arrows. Irregular shapes are sometimes utilized and there must be an acceptable rationale for them. The paradigm Is a visual representation of the entire thesis. It is considered as the heart of the research paper. A title is needed to encapsulate the whole paradigm. Here are some examples of shapes and symbols used in research paradigms and their corresponding meanings (Velarde, 2017): 1. Square or rectangle - these shapes represent stability and order 2. Circle - this implies completion and harmony. It can also present a cycle. 3. Triangle - this shape represents direction and power. 4. Dot or point - this symbol means beginning. 5. Line - this means boundary or division. In research, this can also be used to show connection or relationship. 6. Spiral - this represents anything that expands or contracts. This can also indicate impact or output. 7. Arrow - this indicates direction. In research, this can also be used to show cause and effect. 8. Broken arrow or line - this may be used to show any result or output. Any new or irregular shapes that are rarely used in making a paradigm can be accepted as long as the researcher can logically explain its meaning. The following are the common paradigms or models used in research: 1. IPO MODEL (Input-Process-Output). This model is often used in systems analysis, process modeling, and sometimes in research to explore causal relationships between different variables. It is used to describe the flow of information or resources, where the input leads to a process that results in an output. The IPO model is particularly useful when identifying key factors (input) and how they are processed (process) to achieve results (output). In research, the IPO model is often employed in descriptive and exploratory studies, where you may want to isolate factors or variables contributing to a phenomenon or outcome. It can also be used in systems-focused studies. Example: 2. IV-DV MODEL (Independent Variable-Dependent Variable Model). The IV-DV model is widely used in experimental and quasi-experimental research. The independent variable (IV) is the factor that is manipulated or categorized, while the dependent variable (DV) is what is measured or observed. This model is key in understanding causal relationships between variables. Research questions in this model often seek to explore how changes in the independent variable affect the dependent variable, making them situation-relating as they look at how one variable influences another. Example 3. PC MODEL (Predictor-Criterion Model). This model is used when relating and assessing the influence between two or more variables. Studies that focus on relationships, associations, differences, and impacts will benefit from this model. This model is used to assess and relate the influence between variables, where one variable (the predictor) is used to predict or explain another variable (the criterion). It is commonly used in correlation and regression studies. Example: 4. -P MODEL. This model is used in research studies that propose a program or any intervention measure. It fits the situation-producing level or questioning. Example 1: Example 2: 5. POM (PROPOSED ORIGINAL MODEL). This model is used when the researcher presents an original paradigm. The requirement is that it must be scientific. Example: Figure 12.6 Generation Z: Factors affecting the use of Social Networking Sites (SNSs) (Chatzoglou, Chatzoudes, Ioakeimidou, & Tokoutsi, 2020) Chapter 13: The Hypothesis and Assumptions of the Study Hypothesis of the Study A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the relationship between two or more variables in a population under study (Polit, 2007). It translates a research question into a prediction of expected outcomes. It is commonly used in an experiment-type research, formulated particularly before the conduct of an experimental-quantitative research. It is also considered an intelligent guess that occurs with at least two variables: an independent variable and a dependent variable. It is only after the experimentation that the researcher can finally assess if his or her guess is correct or not. When the result of the experiment is the same as the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is accepted. When the result of the study is the exact opposite of the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected. Kinds of Hypotheses 1. Simple hypothesis. It is a hypothesis formulated when predicting a relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. Examples: a. The nature of teachers is related to the nature of the students. b. There is a relationship between the level of exercise and weight retention among elementary school children. 2. Complex hypothesis. It is a hypothesis formulated when predicting the relationships of two or more independent variables to two or more dependent variables. Examples: a. There is no significant relationship between the profile, classroom leadership and management skills and the school's performance of Sunday school teachers. b. The intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of principals do not significantly affect the performance of secondary schools. c. The personal profile and professional profile of subject coordinators affect the level of performance of the teachers. 3. Directional hypothesis. It is a hypothesis that specifies not only the existence but also the expected direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Examples: a. Lower levels of exercise are associated with greater weight retention than hịgher levels of exercise. b. The types of promotional campaigns positively affect the level of patronage of customers. c. The higher the intake of fiber, the lower is the weight of the physical mass. 4. Non-directional hypothesis. It is a hypothesis that does not stipulate the direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Non-directional hypotheses can also be regarded as simple hypotheses. Examples: a. Women with different levels of postpartum depression differ with regard to weight retention. b. The sources of stress are related to the different coping mechanisms among teachers. c. The number of hours spent in reviewing is associated with the level of performance in periodical exams. 5. Null hypothesis. It is a hypothesis formulated for the purpose of statistical analysis. This kind is always expressed as a negative statement. It is subjected to testing in which the goal is always to reject or disprove the hypothesis. Note that a null hypothesis cannot be accepted because it is impossible to prove that something does not exist. However, it can be disproved that something does not exist by finding an example of it (Siegie, 2019). Examples: a. There is no significant relationship between the reasons for using alternative medicine and the level of comfort of the patients. b. The kind of teaching methods úsed has no effect on the level of performance of students as shown in their academic grades and behavior in class. c. The traits of the middle-level managers do not significantly affect the productivity level of crews in food chains. 6. Alternative or Research hypothesis. It is a hypothesis which states the actual expected relationships between variables. It is always expressed affirmatively and can be classified as either substantive or scientific. Examples: a. The kind of teaching methods used has an effect on the level of performance of students as shown in their academic grades and behavior in class. b. The traits of the middle-level managers significantly affect the productivity level of crews in food chains. All examples of hypotheses mentioned above can be categorized as such if they express the expected relationships of variables. Assumptions of the Study The study or research assumptions are propositions taken to be true based upon the presupposition, without consideration of the facts. These propositions often refer to the different variables or sub-variables being studied. Assumptions are made unconsciously (and thought consciously) based on information about a certain situation and the inferences or conclusions that can be made about this information (Paul & Elder, 2003). For instance, someone lives in a big city like Manila and has heard of several stories about people who had fallen victim to crimes when they went out late at night. Because of this, he or she makes an assumption that it is dangerous to go out at night. However, he or she still decides to go out and walk late at night, taking for granted his or her previous assumption. Assumptions of the Study Examples The Effects of Nursing Care and Services on the Level of Satisfaction of Patients and Their Families The following statements are assumed by the researcher: 1. The staff nurses of Bataan General Hospital and Isaac and Catalina Medical Center are mostly exposed to the patients with different types of diseases within the different facilities and wards of the hospitals. 2. Staff nurses perform their duties mostly by establishing rapport with their clients. 3. Establishing rapport with the clients is the first line to gain the client's trust and cooperation while in the process of treatment 4. Most staff nurses rendered nursing care and services in varying levels. 5. The levels of satisfaction of the patients are different from each other in the different wards of the hospitals. The Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles and Management Styles of Section Heads Towards Work Productivity On the conduct of the study, the following assumptions are expected: 1. The section heads of the selected factories have different management and leadership styles. 2. The different management and leadership styles initiated by the section heads produce varying levels of performance from the company staff. 3. The work productivity of the section heads as well as the company staff depends on the kind of leadership and management styles. 4. There are many factors affecting the leadership and management styles of the section heads. Chapter 14: Definition of Terms Writing Definitions Definitions play an important part in the development of certain written outputs as these allow for the clarification of unfamiliar terms. Thus, it is necessary to know the parts of a formal definition. A formal definition includes a genus and a differentia. The genus is the term being defined, while the differentia is the definition itself. Take for example the following definition of “freedom”: Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint. In this example, the term “freedom” serves as the genus, while the entire phrase after the word “is” serves as the differentia. Definition of Terms The important terms used in a research study must be defined clearly. Some of these terms appear in the thesis title, statement of the problem, theoretical paradigm, and in the scope and delimitation of the study. Certain terms may refer to the respondents, subjects, and the variables and sub-variables. Defining the different terms may be done conceptually or operationally. When a term is defined using books and dictionaries, then it is defined conceptually. On the other hand when the definition of the term is based on how it is used in the study, it is defined operationally. A combination of the two methods is often helpful. Terms that are defined must be arranged alphabetically. Moreover, before defining the enumerated or listed terms there must be an opening sentence or an introductory paragraph. Example: a. Terms that are defined conceptually: Drugs. These may refer to a substance or mixture of substances used in diagnosis treatment, and prevention of diseases or for the modification of physiological function or prevention of pregnancy and which is incorporated in an official list (Chaudhurri, 2003) Ethics. A branch of philosophy that addresses questions of right or wrong. It is a term that refers to the various ways of understanding and examining moral life (Mappes, 2002). Nursing process. It is a systematic process of assessment, planning, and validation in the practice of Nursing through evidence based on the scientific methods for observing, measuring, and gathering data, and analyzing the findings (Doenges, 2006). Study habits. The ways or activities an individual learns. b. Terms that are defined operationally: Academic institution. Operationally defined as referring to the Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies where the Nursing students are enrolled. Leadership approaches. This refers to the approaches employed by the dean and which are categorized as strategies, human assets, expertise, box, or change, and reflected in the respondents' answers measured by a Likert scale. Leadership attributes. These pertain to the rating of deans in a questionnaire as to what they consider to be the most important attribute or function of their position: personal integrity, willingness to accept responsibility, understanding people, communication, selflessness, intuition, vision, decision-making ability, or ability to simplify situations. Leadership styles. These refer to the style of management practiced by the deans, which may be autocratic or participative and is measured by a Likert scale. Study habits. As used in this research,, these pertain to the routinary study methods utilized by students like memorization, use of the Internet, going to the library, and peer review. c. Terms that are defined conceptually and operationally: Eating disorders. A group of behaviors fueled by unresolved emotional conflicts, resulting in altered food consumption (Grodner, 2005). As used in this study, it pertains to the kind of food, frequency of eating, and amount of intake or consumption. Nosocomial infection. It is a hospital-acquired infection (Smith, 2005). In this study, the infections acquired in the hospitals are confined in the medical and pediatric wards, and operating rooms. Personality. It refers to the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a person as shown in his or her manners such as walking, talking, dressing, acting, attitudes, interest, and ways of reacting to other people, which are manifestations of his or her behavior, thoughts, and emotions. Primigravida. A woman in her first pregnancy (Pilliteri, 2004). Operationally, it pertains to a mother who has given birth at the Bataan General Hospital in the first quarter of 2009. Note that the terms that are defined both operationally and conceptually have their dictionary definitions but are used in the research in a very specific manner. REFERENCES Practical Research 2 for Senior High School. (2022) Cristobal, A. P., Jr. and De La Cruz-Cristobal, M. C. C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City: Philippines

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