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Ethiopian Civil Service University College of Leadership and Governance Program - project leadership and Management WELCOME TO: RESEARCH METHODS In PLM Credit hours: 3  Assessment As part of assessment on the course students will submit article review report (20%), t...

Ethiopian Civil Service University College of Leadership and Governance Program - project leadership and Management WELCOME TO: RESEARCH METHODS In PLM Credit hours: 3  Assessment As part of assessment on the course students will submit article review report (20%), test (20%), and formulate a research proposal (20%), and Final Exam (40%). Learning Outcomes Upon completion of the module, students will be able to: Understand the role of research in the production of scientific knowledge Undertake a scientific inquiry using quantitative, qualitative or mixed research approaches; Identify and develop a research problem and justify its relevance; Identify the purpose of a study and develop appropriate research questions/ hypotheses; Identify the combination of research skills which are relevant to a specific research topic; Develop a research proposal  Course Units 1. UNIT One: Research Introduction 2. UNIT Two-Topic, problem and research question 3. UNIT Three: Literature Review 4. UNIT Four: Research Type and Research Design 5. UNIT Five-Sampling and Sample Design/Procesure 6. UNIT Six: Data Collection 7. UNIT Seven-Operationalization, Measurement and Analysis Method 8. UNIT Eight –Data Analysis, presentation and Discussion 9. What statistical analysis should We use? Practical training  UNITONE: RESEARCH INTRODUCTION  1.1 Definitions of Research  The word research is composed of two syllabuses, re and search.The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try or to probe  Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.  research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. Research is:  A systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.  Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena.  Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information and knowledge on a specific topic.  Research is a movement from the unknown to the known  1.2. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon (exploratory or formulative research studies); 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (descriptive research studies); 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs (diagnostic research studies); 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing research studies).  1.3. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH What makes people to undertake research? 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; 4. Desire to serve the society; 5. Desire to get respectability.  1.4.Reasons to Conduct research Students need to know research methods for two basic reasons; – To write an assignment of appropriate standard- academic role/ methodology oriented/ – To carryout research to answer vital questions for the business, people, Economics, in which you are in-leadership/management role / finding oriented/ 1.5. Research methods vs Research methodology  Research methods refer to all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research -research methods can be put into the following three groups: 1. Methods which are concerned with the collection of data.; 2. Statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data 3. Methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.  Conti…  Research methodology  Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.  A science of studying how research is done scientifically.  The strategy one chooses to answer research questions  It is the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem  Research method is a part of Research methodology  1.7. What might be special about Research? Research is not a single pure academic discipline like chemistry.(multi disciplinary) This is evident from the fact that the term Organization is an umbrella for many different things and involves a number of different academic disciplines such as Mathematics Psychology Economics Politics History  Conti… Researches are conducted at different levels – Prediction As in the case of regression analysis and trend analysis – Fact finding what happened? (study on frequency and characteristics) - Relation/Correlation studies Impact analysis, correlation, Role analysis 1. 1 0. S I G N I F I C A N C E O F R E S E A RC H  Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry.  Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.  Researchprovides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH CONT… I n the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has three distinct phases of operation: (i)investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii)diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii)theprognosis/an opinion, i.e., the prediction of future developments.  SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH C O N T … Others significance of research: (a)To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure; (b)To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood; (c)To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights; (d)To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work; (e)To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.  1.11. Modes of knowledge Gibson et al (1994) provided two modes of knowledge that is created through business research; – “Mode 1 knowledge” is a knowledge created by an academics for an academic purpose to further and add to what is known- it has to do with basic research e.g. the concept of economies of scale – “Mode 2 knowledge” is practical applied knowledge and comes from collaborating with practitioners or policy makers – “Mode 3 knowledge” as suggested by Huff & Huff (2001) is a knowledge that is neither produced specifically for academic purpose nor for direct application to practical need but for understanding the bigger picture in relation to society’s survival and the common good  1.12. Issue we need to understand in research method Research is messy activity Regarding the logical progression in research Formulating the research topic & critically reviewing relevant literature (when should they be done) The researcher affects the result of research Basically research has to be objective but there is a need to recognize the fact that there is always human element in research so long as we are not conducting the research using machines  1.13. THE RESEARCH PROCESS (1) formulating the research problem; (2) extensive literature survey; (3) developing the hypothesis; (4) preparing the research design; (5) determining sample design; (6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis testing; (10)generalizations and interpretation, and (11)preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached. 1.14. Research Ethics  UNIT TWO  Formulation of the Research Topics, Problem and Questions/ Hypothesis Unit Objectives Select a researchable topic; Formulation of the research problem and Gaps Formulation of the research hypothesis; Preparing Basic research questions  The Research Topics The Title  it should give sufficient information about the nature of study  The title should not be too lengthy. It should be specific to the area of study.  The title should not be burdened by pompous words and the language in the title should be professional  Selection of Research Topic Attributes of a good research topic Capability: is it feasible? Is the topic something with which you are really fascinated? Do you have, or can you develop within the project time frame, the necessary research skills to undertake the topic? Is the research topic achievable within the available time? Will the topic still be current when you finish your project? Is the topic achievable within the financial resources that are likely to be available? Are you reasonably certain of being able to gain access to data? Appropriateness: is it worthwhile? Does the topic fit the specifications and meet the standards set by the examining institution? Are you able to state your research question(s), aim and objectives 3 2 clearly? Does the topic match your career goals (field of study)?  Selecting a topic You the researcher values, belief, interests, relevance, and personal experiences can influence the choice of a research topic Supervisor Find out the research interests of the potential supervisors; have a discussion with them; read their publications Data Sources researchers are sometimes restricted to particular topics because of access to or lack of access to data in the specific field of study or time availability 3 3 Selecting a topic…Cont’d Current trends researchers can select a topic based on how important a particular issue is perceived to be to society at that point in time Sponsor researchers can also restricted by the sponsor or funding agency. Most funding agencies have specific topics of interests which are based on their goals and objectives. Research Gaps Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to be addressed or areas of study where there are reasonable gaps in the existing literature. The potential contribution to literature lies in the research gap.  Formulating the Research Problem The first and most important step in the research process. It means defining the problem precisely It is like determination of the destination before undertaking a journey. A problem defined is half solved- Formulation of problem is often more essential than its solution  It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same  There are two types of research problems: A. Those which relate to states of nature and; B. Those which relate to relationships between variables  Conti…  Formulation of a problem involves the following steps: a) Statement of the problem in a general way b) Understanding the nature of the problem c) Surveying the available literature d) Developing the idea through discussion e) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition. NB- it should answers “ why you are conducting research on the given topic”  Types of Research Gaps-in writing a research problem A. Issue Gap – An issue which is less discussed, or less represented in literature. Very little is known about this issue. Ex: Corporate Governance, Think-tanks B. Theory Gap – A theory or theoretical framework which is less discussed, or less represented in literature. Theory gap can also exist when current theories or conceptual models are inadequate in addressing a particular research issue. –Evaluation model for distance learning outcomes C. Method Gap – A research method which is less discussed or less represented in literature in respect to a particular research topic/issue. Sometimes researchers make a case for new research methods or approaches to be used for a particular research issue. Inconclusive/conflicting empirical results can also create method gaps. D. Context Gap – A research context – geographic region – which is less discussed or less represented in literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue. E. Level of Analysis Gap – A level of analysis (meta, macro, and micro) – which is less discussed or less represented in literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue. 7  Criteria for selecting a problem Internal External Researchability i.e., (problems having researcher’s solutions) interest Importance, urgency, usefulness and social relevance, i.e., relative importance and researcher’s significance of problem visa -a -vis utility of expected findings competence Novelty or originality researcher’s Feasibility own Availability of data Suitable methodology resources Cooperation of organizations and i.e., finance, individuals Available time time, etc. Facilities /infrastructure Reason validity 38 2024-08-21  Some important sources for selecting a problem: Professional Experience, Contact and Discussion with People, Inference from theory, Professional Literature, and Technological and Social Changes. 39 2024-08-21  Evaluation of the Problem Before the final decision is passed on the investigation of the problem, the feasibility of the problem has to be tested in terms of personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the problem. In short, the research problem should be evaluated in terms of the following criteria: Is the problem researchable? Is the problem new? Is the problem significant? Is the problem feasible for the particular 40 researcher? 2024-08-21  A research problem is explained in the form of: Objective of the study Basic Research questions Hypothesis 41 2024-08-21  Research Questions Research questions are interrogative statements that focus on what variables or concepts are to be described and what relationships might exist among them. 10  Hypothesis The word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis – ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and – ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem. It is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem. 1 5  The Hypotheses It is a proposition that is stated in testable form and predicts a particular relationship between two (or more) variables. By test we mean either to confirm it to our satisfaction or to prove it wrong. A clearly writtenhypothesis helps researchers to decide what data to collect and how to analyze them. – It typically implies that a change in one variable is caused by change in another variable. Example: Employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in decision making would have a higher level of commitment. 1 6  Developing Working Hypothesis  After extensive literature survey, researcher should state the working hypothesis in clear terms.  It is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.  Hypotheses affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis.  Hypotheses should be very specific, limited, operationalisable, conceptually clear and should be related to the body of knowledge.  It should also be stated in precise and clearly defined terms and also it has to be tested.  Conti…  It indicates the type of data, the type of methods of data analysis to be used and it guides the researcher by delimiting the area of research and keep him on the right track there are two common categories of hypothesis:  1. Research/Null Hypothesis  2. Alternate Hypothesis Steps involved in hypothesis testing The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below: 1. Making a formal statement 2. Selecting a significance level 3. Deciding the distribution to use 4. Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value 5. Calculation of the probability 6. Comparing the probability  Errors in Hypothesis Testing In hypothesis testing, there are four possible outcomes:  The hypothesis is true but our test leads to its rejection  The hypothesis is false but our test leads to acceptance  The hypothesis is true and our test leads to acceptance  The hypothesis is false and our test leads to its rejection The first two lead to an erroneous decision. The first possibility leads to a Type I error and The second possibility leads to a Type II error.  The last two lead to Correct Decision  Deduction & Induction A. Deductive reasoning- works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach. It begins with thinking up a theory about a topic of interest; then narrow to more specific hypotheses  B. Inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning- works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, sometimes called as "bottom up" approach. It begins with specific observations and measures; then formulate some tentative hypotheses, and finally end up with developing some general theories.  Unit Three: Literature Review  Extensive Literature Review Once the problem is formulated, a brief summery of it should be written down.  Literature Review gives an overview of the problem  Provide indication of why the problem is worth considering  Explain what contribution the study will make  Cite one or more studies that are directly relevant to the proposed study or lead to the theoretical justification. Review of Related Literature -Discusses the theoretical and empirical framework  provides information about what was done, how it was done, and what results were gathered.  Defines The technical terms and phrases that operationalise the concepts and that have special meanings.  Summary of the literature that contains the major issues that you will adapt to your research or that you will use in your research.  Literature review:  It is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Reasons for Reviewing Literature a) Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem b) Improving the methodology c) Broadening the researcher knowledge in the research area. d). Contextualize your findings. Reviewing a literature is a continuous process. 54 2024-08-21  Four main reasons of reviewing the Literature 55 2024-08-21  Conti… Procedures in reviewing the literature  There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:  a) Search for existing literature in your area of study  b) Review the literature selected  c) Develop a theoretical framework  d) Develop a conceptual framework.  1. Distinguish theoretical framework and conceptual framework? Reflective Activity What are the characteristics of a good literature review? 2 5  Characteristics of a good literature review The survey materials must be as recent as possible. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts data to make them valid and reliable. Review materials must not be too few nor too many. 2 6  Reflective Activity Identify the Literature sources 2 7  Literature sources available i. Primary literature sources/grey literature- publications without commercial purposes, difficult to trace/: are the first occurrence of a piece of work  They include published sources such as reports and some central and local government publications such as planning documents  Unpublished manuscript such as letters, memos and committee minutes 2 8 Literature sources available...Cont’d ii. Secondary literature sources: these are subsequent publication of primary literature (books and journals) Aimed at a wider audience  They are easier to locate than primary literature as they are better covered by tertiary literature. iii. Tertiary literature sources/search tools/: these are designed to help to locate primary and secondary literature or to introduce a topic. Include: abstracts, indexes, and bibliographies 2 9 Note- Taking Techniques 1) Paraphrasing using the ideas of an author, but not his or her exact word. “restating or rewording a passage from a text, giving the same meaning in another form" If you use the ideas or opinions from someone else and restate them in your own words, you still need to cite the source. 3 8  Note taking Techniques- Cont’d 2. Summarize: It is writing a summary of what the author says. Summarizing means taking ideas from a larger passage and condensing them into your own words. It is useful because to:  miss out unnecessary details, such as examples  Use less words than the author, and therefore the number of words will be minimized in your writing. 3 9  Note- Taking Techniques-Cont’d 3. Direct Quote It means using the exact same words as the original author. If you use the exactwords of an author, you need to include them in “quotation marks.” 40  During Quotation A short quotation (