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BarCharts,Inc.® WORLD'S #1 ACADEMIC OUTLINE THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY FOR INTRODUCTORY COURSES INTRODUCTION LEARNING BIOLOGICAL BASES DEFINITION: Scie...

BarCharts,Inc.® WORLD'S #1 ACADEMIC OUTLINE THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY FOR INTRODUCTORY COURSES INTRODUCTION LEARNING BIOLOGICAL BASES DEFINITION: Scientific study of behavior CONTINUED OF PSYCHOLOGY and mental processes and how they are affected c. Stimulus discrimination - different responses are STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM by an organism’s physical and mental state and made to stimuli which are similar to the CS 1. Central - brain and spinal cord OPERANT CONDITIONING 2. Peripheral - sensory and motor nerves which external environment transmit information GOALS: Describe, understand, predict and 1. Reinforcer (reward) - increases response a. Somatic - control skeletal muscles probability control (or modify) behavior or mental processes a. Positive reinforcement - response followed by presentation b. Autonomic - regulates internal organs and glands i. Parasympathetic - conserves energy PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: of reinforcing stimulus ii. Sympathetic - expends energy 1. Descriptive studies - describe but not explain b. Negative reinforcement - response followed by removal of unpleasant stimulus COMMUNICATION WITHIN NERVOUS a. Case history - description of one individual b. Observation 2. Punishment - stimulus that follows response SYSTEM i. Naturalistic - natural environment 1. Neuron - basic unit of nervous system decreases probability response will occur a. cell body - keeps neuron alive ii. Laboratory - setting controlled by researcher 3. Principles of Operant Conditioning b. dendrites - receive information from other neurons c. Surveys - questionnaires and interviews a. Extinction - response no longer reinforced c. axons - send information to other neurons d. Tests - d. myelin - insulates axon to enable information to be b. Stimulus generalization - response will occur to i. Reliability - used to measure whether individual transmitted faster differences in test scores are due to actual differences in similar stimuli c. Stimulus discrimination - responses do not occur to 2. Communication between Neurons the characteristic being measured or due to chance a. Synapses - gaps between neurons errors and fluctuations different stimuli b. Message travels through axon to synaptic knob on ii. Validity - refers to the extent to which a test measures d. Timing of reinforcers - the sooner a reinforcer or axon's tip what it purports; the validity of a test must be punisher follows an action, the greater its effect c. Synaptic vesicles open and release empirically established – relating the test to particular e. Schedules of reinforcement neurotransmitter into synaptic gap criterion that it claims to measure i. Continuous reinforcement - a particular response is d. Neurotransmitter fits into receptor sites on 2. Correlational Studies - strength of relationships always reinforced receiving dendrite, causing it to be more or less between variables, does not show causation ii. Intermittent reinforcement - reinforcing only some likely to fire 3. Experiment - researcher controls variable(s) to responses THE BRAIN discover its effect on other variables (a) fixed ratio (FR) - reinforcement after a fixed number of 1. Hindbrain a. Independent variable - manipulated/controlled by responses, high rates of responding a. Medulla, pons, reticular activating system, cerebellum researcher (b) variable ratio (VR) - reinforcement after average b. Responsible for reflexive, automatic behavior b. Dependent variable - measured by researcher (data) number of responses, very high, steady rates of responding 2. Midbrain - information conduit (c) fixed interval (FI) - reinforcement after fixed amount of c. Experimental and control groups - only 3. Forebrain time, scalloped response pattern experimental group exposed to independent variable, a. Thalamus - directs sensory messages (d) variable interval (VI) - reinforcement after a variable otherwise treated the same b. Hypothalamus - emotion and survival drives amount of time, low, steady rate of response d. Change in dependent variable caused by independent c. Pituitary gland - controls many other endocrine glands f. Shaping - reinforce successive approximations to the d. Cerebral cortex variable, since all else remained the same desired response i. Occipital lobes - vision e. Confounding Variable - an observed effect that may g. Chaining - a method of connecting responses into a ii. Parietal lobes - sensory information be due to an intervening third variable between the iii.Temporal lobes - process sounds dependent and independent variables; the sequence of behaviors; at the end of the chain there iv. Frontal lobes - motor movements confounding variable must be systematically must always be a reinforcer; the chain is constructed 4. Two brain hemispheres controlled or, if possible, eliminated, otherwise by beginning at the end and working backward; all a. Each one controls opposite side of body obtained results are invalidated behaviors have to be previously conditioned into the b. Left hemisphere dominant for most people f. Inferred Variable - a non-observable variable that is organism’s repertoire inferred as the mediator between two observed 4. Cognitive Behavior Modification events; for instance, inferring the experience of "fear" The principles of learning theory are applied to from certain measurable physiological anxiety alter undesirable thoughts, rather than only STRESS AND responses; it is frequently difficult to avoid circular observable behaviors HEALTH explanations in positing an inferred variable a. Social Learning Theory - (Bandura) four processes STRESS - EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL g. Subject Variable - a condition that is part of the which influence learning are: RESPONSES TO STIMULI subject’s make-up and cannot be assigned randomly; i. Attention 1. Caused by stimuli and the way those stimuli are e.g., sex, height, hair-color etc; because of their non- ii. Memory perceived randomnizability, causal conclusions cannot be iii.Behavior 2. Biological reaction derived from subject variable experiments iv. Motivation a. Fight or flight - increase heart rate, breathing, tense muscles h. Non-Subject Variable - a characteristic that is not b. Increased activity in the sympathetic nervous system b. Specific cognitive processes that are recognized: part of a subject’s make-up, and thus can be randomly i. Attribution c. Adrenal glands secrete epinephrine (adrenalin) and assigned; e.g., whether the subject received a certain ii. Expectancy norepinephrine drug or a placebo iii.Logical 3. Coping with stress iv. Verbal a. Reappraise situation b. Maintain control over the stressful situation v. Imaginable c. Rational emotive therapy - (Ellis) considers the PSYCHOLOGY AND ILLNESS LEARNING 1. Heart disease central core of dysfunctional behavior to be due to Change in behavior as a result of experience a. Type A personalities - hard-working, competitive, irrational beliefs; the therapy focuses on the increased incidence of heart disease CLASSICAL CONDITIONING alteration of these irrational beliefs b. Type B personalities - easy going 1. Pavlov’s studies d. Problem-solving therapy - focuses on enhancing the 2. Cancer a. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - food - elicits an patient’s ability to make decisions and solve problems a. Exposure to carcinogens increases the risk unconditioned response (UCR) - salivation in stressful or difficult situations b. Psychological factors influence functioning of b. Pair neutral stimulus - tone - with UCS - food e. Paradoxical intervention - patients are instructed to immune system c. Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus (CS) purposely perform undesirable symptomatic HEALTH AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS - tone - which elicits conditioned response CR - behaviors on command in an effort to demonstrate 1. Friends - assisted coping salivation their ability to gain control over these behaviors a. Emotional, cognitive and tangible support 2. Principles of classical conditioning f. Attribution therapy - attempts to facilitate the b. Cultural differences in the value placed on friendships a. Extinction - when the CS is not presented with the patient’s ability to re-attribute undesirable feelings 2. Friends as stress producers UCS, it will diminish a. Contagion effect - others can exaggerate stress and symptoms to something less threatening and b. Friend under stress can increase your stress level b. Stimulus generalization - similar stimuli may elicit more acceptable c. Burden of caring for others can increase stress the same response as the CS 1  SENSATION AND LANGUAGE, THINKING SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND INTELLIGENCE PSYCHOLOGY SENSATION - Awareness of physical changes CONTINUED ROLES - A social position governed by MEASURING SENSATION ii. Use algorithms (systematic methods guaranteed to norms 1. Absolute thresholds - detection of signal 50 produce a solution) or iii.Use heuristics (a rule that may or may not produce a 1. Norms - conventions by which we live percent of time 2. Zimbardo’s Prison Study solution), (i.e., simplification, reasoning by analogy) 2. Difference thresholds (j.n.d. - just noticeable a. Students assigned to "guard" or "prisoner" roles b. Insight - sudden understanding of solution difference) b. Student behavior reflected their assigned roles a. Difference in sensation detectable 50 percent of time INTELLIGENCE - capacity to acquire and use knowledge 3. Milgram’s Obedience Study b. Weber’s Law - change necessary for j.n.d. is a 1. Measuring intelligence a. Participants thought they were part of an proportion of original stimulus a. Binet - IQ tests - mental age (as determined by a test) experiment in learning THE EYE divided by chronological age = IQ b. "Teacher" was instructed to shock "learner" for 1. Light enters through the cornea b. Wechsler - tests include verbal, mathematical and wrong answer 2. Lens focuses light on the retina 3. Retina - at the back of the eyeball nonverbal thinking skills c. Majority of "teachers" complied with the a. Rods - respond to dim light c. Average score is 100, scores describe a bell-shaped instructions to administer shock b. Cones - respond to color (normal) distribution SOCIAL COGNITION - how the social c. Fovea - center of retina, contains only cones, site d. I.Q. (Intelligence Quotient) is computed by dividing environment influences thoughts, where vision is sharpest a person’s "mental age" by their "chronological age" perception and belief THE EAR and multiplying by one hundred; yielding the 1. Attribution - motivation to explain behavior 1. Outer ear - collects sounds waves formula: IQ = (MA/CA) X 100 a. Situational - caused by the environment 2. Middle ear - waves strike eardrum which passes 2. Uses of IQ tests b. Dispositional - caused by something within them to three tiny bones which intensify the force a. As a predictor of school success individual of the vibrations b. Concerns about being "culture fair" c. Fundamental attribution error - overestimate 3. Inner ear - contains receptor cells (hair cells) 3. Nature of intelligence - one ability or many? dispositional and underestimate situational located within the cochlea which initiate nerve 4. Influence of the environment causes impulses which travel to the brain a. Hereditability - studies over a forty-year span have d. Self-serving bias - use dispositional TASTE revealed 50 – 80 % genetic component to IQ. attributions for good behaviors and situational 1. Four basic tastes - salty, sour, bitter and sweet - each Consequently, the general conclusion seems to be attributions to excuse our own behaviors associated with different receptors or taste buds that heredity has a substantial effect on IQ scores, 2. Stereotypes - summary impressions when all SMELL with at least half the observed variation in IQ scores members of a group share common traits 1. Receptors in mucous membrane of nasal passage attributable to genetic differences 3.Attitude - a relatively enduring opinion b. Experience determines point within genetic range SKIN SENSES including both cognitive and emotional 5. Extremes in intelligence components 1. Touch (pressure), warmth, cold and pain a. Intellectually Challenged - IQ below 70 PERCEPTION - organization and i. Biologically based - Downs syndrome, fetal alcohol a. Attitudes and behavior influence each other interpretation of sensations syndrome b. Cognitive dissonance - when an attitude and 1. World seen as constant, although the sensations ii. Psychosocial - disease, malnutrition, lack of behavior conflict, we are motivated to make may change intellectual stimulation them consistent 2. Needs, beliefs, emotions and expectations all b. Intellectually gifted - skills on one or more 4. Prejudice - unjustif ied negative attitudes influence perception intellectual domains toward a group CONFORMITY - behavior that occurs as a result of real or imagined group pressure LANGUAGE, MEMORY OBEDIENCE - following orders from an THINKING AND Ability to retain and retrieve information authority INTELLIGENCE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS LANGUAGE - Rule-governed system of 1. Information must be encoded to be processed by 1. Groupthink - tendency for all group symbols used to represent and communicate brain members to think alike and suppress dissent information a. Storage - retention of information 2. Group Polarization - tendency of a group to b. Retrieval - accessing information take a more extreme position than those of 1. Understanding language a. Phonology - knowledge of sounds 2. Three memory systems individual members b. Semantics - knowledge or word meanings a. Sensory - literal copy of information - held for 1-2 3.Responsibility c. Syntax - knowledge of grammatical structure seconds a. Diffusion of responsibility - avoidance i. Deep structure - meaning b. Short-term b. Social loafing - individual slows down to let ii. Surface structure - organization of words i. Limited capacity (7 + or - 2 items) the group shoulder the load d. Psycholinguistics - the study of the ability to ii. Information held for about 30 seconds; then it is forgotten or further encoded and placed in long-term c. Bystander apathy will not occur when one produce and understand language memory i. Perceives the need to help 2. Acquiring language c. Long-term ii. Decides to take responsibility a. Rules and strategies are innate i. Unlimited capacity iii.Weighs the costs of helping i. Basic timing and sequence of language development is ii. Information stored and retrieved by category iv. Knows how to help similar across cultures ii. Children learn the rules of their native language, (i.e., 3. Forgetting LOVE - (Sternberg) overgeneralization) a. In sensory memory - through decay 1.Has three related components: b. Particular language acquired is based on experience b. In short-term memory a. Intimacy 3. Language and thought - language has an impact on i. Limited capacity subject to “filling up” b. Passion ii. Can retain information through rehearsal how easily we process information c. Commitment (a) Maintenance (rote) rehearsal THINKING (b) Elaborative rehearsal - associating new with old 2.Depending on the combination of these 1. Using concepts - apply past experiences to present information elements, produces different dimensions in a thoughts c. In long-term memory relationship: a. Concept - a mental grouping of a set of objects or i. Decay - information fades if not used a. Liking - intimacy alone events on the basis of important common features ii. Forgetting b. Companionate Love - intimacy and b. Must be learned through definition or example (a) Interference - similar items interfere (b) Motivated - conscious or unconscious “hiding” a commitment c. Concepts aid in predicting and interpreting events c. Empty Love - commitment alone memory and organizing experiences (c) Cue-dependent - unable to gain access to the information d. Fatuous Love - passion and commitment 2. Problem solving - set of information used to (d) Zeigarnik effect - interrupted, or incomplete tasks seem e. Infatuation - passion only achieve goal to be better remembered than completed tasks f. Romantic Love - intimacy and passion a. Strategies (e) Non-verbal memory - pictures are remembered significantly better than words; motor memory seems to be g. Consummate Love - intimacy, passion, and i. Define the problem impervious to decay commitment 2  DEVELOPMENT PERSONALITY MOTIVATION AND DEFINITIONS CONTINUED EMOTION 1. Learning - influence of experience (nurture) 2. Psychosexual development MOTIVATION - need or desire to act a certain 2. Maturation - unfolding of biological patterns (nature) a. Oral stage (0-1) - sucking, feeding, etc. way to achieve a goal 3. Critical Periods - early development periods during b. Anal stage (2-3) - defecation 1. Range of motives which particular early experiences are essential c. Phallic stage (3-5) - sexual attraction to the opposite a. Physiological - hunger, thirst, pain avoidance 4. Stages - organization of behaviors and thoughts sex parent produces the Oedipus complex b. Social - learned d. Latency period (5-puberty) - sexual feelings c. Maslow - motives organized in a hierarchy of needs - during particular early periods of development - forgotten; child concentrates on skill development defined by relatively abrupt change physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, e. Genital stage - adult sexual relationships self-actualization COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 3. Anxiety - unjustified fears resolved by ego through 2. Motivational system - set of motives and 1. Piaget use of defense mechanisms a. Assimilation - fit new information into what is known a. Repression - active exclusion of unconscious behaviors that operate in a particular life area b. Accommodation - change existing beliefs in impulses from consciousness a. Hunger and eating b. Projection - attribute to others our thoughts and feelings i. Hunger signals - stomach contractions, hypothalamus, response to new knowledge c. Reaction formation - behavior patterns opposite to environment c. Stages of development i. Sensory-motor stage (birth - 2) - object permanence our anxiety producing urges ii. Food preferences - cultural, personal and biological ii. Preoperational stage (2-7) - use of symbols and d. Displacement - redirects anxiety producing origins language; egocentric; lack the principles of conservation behaviors to a more acceptable target b. Sexual motivation - hormones iii. Concrete operational stage (7-11) - understand e. Rationalization - substitute “good” reasons for real c. Work conservation, identity, grounded in concrete experiences reasons for behavior i. Extrinsic motivation - working for external reward iv. Formal operations stage (12-adult) - abstract reasoning 4. Defense Mechanisms ii. Intrinsic motivation - working for pleasure of activity a. Denial - the refusal to acknowledge an external itself 2. Language development - acquisition depends on source of anxiety 3. Maslow’s hierarchy of motivations biological readiness and experience b. Fantasy - utilizing imagination to satisfy desires that a. In the hierarchy of needs, the needs at each level must SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT are, in reality, highly unlikely (e.g., sexually be satisfied before going on to the next level 1. Attachment - emotional tie between infant and fantasizing about a celebrity) c. Intellectualization - the repression of the emotional b. The hierarchy of needs caretaker (Harlow’s monkey studies) i. Physiological needs - food, water, sex, and shelter 2. Sex typing - learning “masculine” or “feminine” component of an anxiety-provoking event; the event is treated in a purely analytical manner ii. Safety needs - security needs a. Identification with the same sex parent iii.Belongingness and love needs - acceptance and d. Regression - resorting to infantile behaviors as a b. Rewards and punishments for sex appropriate behavior friendship method for avoiding anxiety and/or responsibility 3. Erikson’s stages e. Identification - identifying with the anxiety- iv. Esteem needs - self-esteem, and esteem from others a. Trust Versus Mistrust: 0 – 2 years of age producing stimulus in an attempt to reduce one’s own v. Self-actualization needs - realizing one’s potential as a b. Autonomy Versus Doubt and Shame: 2- 3 years of age anxiety (opposite of projection) creative, productive person c. Initiative Versus Guilt: 3 – 6 years of age f. Overcompensation - an attempt to conceal perceived EMOTION d. Industry Versus Inferiority: 6 – 11 years of age deficiencies in one area by excelling in another; e.g., 1. Defining features of emotions - subjective MORAL DEVELOPMENT - Kohlberg a student with poor academic performance becomes an excellent athlete experience, physiological arousal, expressive Theory: g. Sublimation - the re-channeling of sexual or behavior, changes in cognition 1. Preconventional morality - obey because ordered aggressive impulses in a socially acceptable 2. Inborn - people from different cultural to or will be punished direction; e.g., an aggressive person becomes a backgrounds can identify emotions 2. Conventional morality - based on trust, loyalty or professional boxer 3. James-Lange Theory - emotion is a result of a understanding social order HUMANISTIC THEORIES - people are perception of bodily changes and behaviors 3. Postconventional morality - laws are situational rational, capable of choice and desire to 4. Cannon-Bard Theory - emotion is a result of and can be changed achieve personal growth perception of a stimulus which causes both CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Carl Rogers - self-concept directs behavior, physiological changes and subjective feelings 1. Newborn Child conflict between real and ideal self 5. Cognitive Labeling Theory - emotion is a result of a. Reflexes - automatic behaviors, rooting, sucking, 2. Abraham Maslow - individual strives for self- the interpretation of the causes of physiological swallowing, startle, etc. actualization - fulfillment of potential arousal b. Vision - nearsighted, interested in novelty EXISTENTIAL PSYCHODYNAMICS 1. Yalom - primary drive of the individual is to derive 6. Frustration-aggression hypothesis - aggression c. Social skills i. Smile at 4-6 weeks in response to faces meaning from the complexities of their life results from blocking of efforts to achieve a goal ii. Rhythmic "conversations" experiences; to understand a structure, rationale, or 2. Adolescence justification to the events they have experienced; a. Biological development - increased hormone failing this, life is seen as absurd and pointless, leading to despair, depression, and existential crises; the CONSCIOUSNESS production; sex organs mature; growth spurt b. Intellectual development - formal operational primary concerns of this approach to psychotherapy JAYNES’ THEORY (abstract reasoning), independence, questioning deal with confronting the issues of death, freedom, 1. Consciousness not only evolves neurobiologically, 3. Aging existential isolation, and meaninglessness but is also formed by the individual’s interactions a. Transition Theories - unanticipated, anticipated, SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY - how and with culture nonevent, chronic hassle under what situations thoughts and behaviors 2. The foundation of consciousness is based in the b. Major Milestones - starting out, marriage or living are learned alone, parenthood, empty nest, midlife crises, physiology of the brain’s left and right hemispheres; CONSISTENCY IN PERSONALITY retirement, widowhood 1. Trait - relatively enduring quality or characteristic there are three fundamental forms of human 2. Cross-situational - most central to self-concept awareness that are the outcome of this process: PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT a. Bicameral - controlled by right hemisphere of brain, PERSONALITY 1. Assessment methods must be: which dominates left-hemisphere activity; individual a. Reliable - same results over time subordinates consciousness of self to control by a Distinctive patterns of behavior, thoughts and b. Valid - measure what it is supposed to measure group, a higher power, or other individual emotions that characterize individual's 2. Interview b. Modern - the dominance of the right brain patterns of adaptation a. Advantage - tailored to individual's previous answers b. Disadvantage - low reliability hemisphere over the left is weakened as civilization THE ORIGINS OF PERSONALITY 3. Observation develops and humans become more autonomous and 1. Biological and genetic influences a. times particular behavior occurs independent; as humans become more independent, 2. Experience - cultural and unique b. Good reliability 3. Stability and change individual consciousness emerges 4. Self-report c. Throwbacks to bicamerality - the re-emergence of a. Genetic characteristics relatively stable through life a. MMPI - to diagnose psychological disorders b. Less active, hostile and impulsive with age b. Ten primary scales measure personality dimensions bicameral consciousness in modern life is manifested c. Personality changes as a result of life experiences 5. Projective techniques - individual provides an by episodes of schizophrenia, hypnosis and poetic FREUD interpretation of ambiguous material and religious frenzy 1. Personality consists of three parts a. Rorschach inkblots SLEEP RHYTHMS a. Id - basic biological urges; unconscious b. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) b. Ego - gratifies urges within acceptable bounds; conscious c. Concerns about reliability and validity since 1. REM - rapid eye movements associated with c. Superego - values and ideals of society; conscience interpretations are subjective dreaming 3  CONSCIOUSNESS ABNORMAL TREATMENT AND CONTINUED BEHAVIOR THERAPY CONTINUED 2. Stages of brain waves TYPES c. Implosion - client required to imagine the anxiety- a. Alpha Waves - regular, high-amplitude, low 1. Statistical deviation producing stimulus in its most vivid and extreme frequency wave 2. Violation of cultural standards manifestation; client experiences full anxiety b. Stage 1 - small, irregular brain waves, light sleep response without suffering any harm; consequently, 3. Maladaptive behavior the stimulus no longer elicits anxiety due to c. Stage 2 - bursts of sleep spindles 4. Emotional distress extinction of the response d. Stage 3 - delta waves; deep sleep 5. Legal (impaired judgment and lack of self-control) d. Flooding - same procedure and theory as implosion, e. Stage 4 - extremely deep sleep ANXIETY DISORDERS but real or realistically depicted stimuli are used f. Entire cycle is 30-45 minutes and then reverses 1. Generalized anxiety disorder - chronic anxiety instead of imaginary ones WAKEFULNESS 2. Phobia - fear of specific situation, activity or thing 3. Cognitive therapy - to correct unrealistic thinking 1. Conscious processes 3. Obsessive-compulsive disorder 4. Humanistic therapy 2. Subconscious processes - can be brought into a. Obsessions - recurrent thoughts a. Client-centered - Carl Rogers consciousness when necessary b. Compulsions - repetitive behaviors i. build self esteem 3. Nonconscious processes - remain outside MOOD DISORDERS - (depression & mania) ii. critical qualities of the therapist - warm, genuine and awareness but influence behavior honest 1. Causes b. Gestalt - Frederick Perls - self-actualization ALTERED STATES a. Biological (brain chemistry) 1. Meditation - eliminate distracting thoughts 5. Family and Group therapies - theorize that b. Social (life situations) 2. Psychoactive drugs - influence perception, problems develop in a social context and must be c. Attachment (disturbed relationships) thinking or behavior dealt with in that context d. Cognitive (maladaptive thoughts) a. Stimulants - speed up nervous system activity - PERSONALITY DISORDERS EVALUATING THERAPIES cocaine, amphetamines 1. Therapies are less effective with serious disorders 1. Paranoid - excessive suspiciousness b. Depressants - slow central nervous system activity - 2. Relationship between client and therapist is critical 2. Narcissistic - exaggerated sense of self-importance alcohol, tranquilizers 3. Certain therapies are effective for certain specific 3. Antisocial - lack of social emotions c. Opiates - relieve pain and produce euphoria - opium, problems DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS - amnesia, morphine, heroin MEDICAL TREATMENTS multiple personality 1. Advantages of Medical Model - promotes a more d. Psychedelic drugs - alter consciousness - LSD, mescaline SOMOTOFORM DISORDERS - take the humane understanding of patients; aids in the 3. Hypnosis - heightened state of suggestibility when form of physical disorders understanding of some organic mental disorders subjects can sometimes control unconscious body PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS and further initiates research in brain function functions 1. Schizophrenia - bizarre delusions, hallucinations, 2. Disadvantages of Medical Model - environmental 4. Weil’s Theory severe emotional problems, withdrawal variables are unduly minimized or neglected; a. Humans have an innate drive to experience states of a. Family dynamics - distorted patterns of communication diagnostic and treatment methods are questionable, non-ordinary consciousness b. Biological - brain disease(s) or abnormalities in thus fostering an institutionalization syndrome; this b. Individuals and cultures experiment with ways to neurotransmitters approach removes responsibility for recovery from change their ordinary states of consciousness c. Stress - combination of heredity and stress the patient while promoting a dependence upon c. Altered states of consciousness are common; e.g., 2. Organic brain disorders - i.e. diseases, brain injury hospitals and chemicals daydreaming, sleeping, etc VIEWS ON THE REALITY OF MENTAL BEHAVIORISM d. Individuals often are unaware they are in the midst of ILLNESS 1. Cognitive components to behavior (e.g., an experience of non-ordinary consciousness; e.g., 1. Szasz’s Objection - the concept of "mental illness" expectations, verbalization, imitation etc.) are daydreams, or alcoholic ‘black-out’ episodes is a socially constructed myth for the purpose of unduly minimized or ignored e. Altered states of consciousness form a continuum or advancing certain social and political agenda; 2. Overly operationalistic - physical correlates are spectrum ranging from normal, alert, waking clinical psychology is an instrument of repression to closely identified with mental states (e.g., fear is consciousness to sensory deprivation, to coma enforce conformity and stigmatize non-conformists identified with the physiological manifestations of f. Psychotropic and psychedelic drugs do not cause as "deviant" people with the label "mentally ill" anxiety); overlooks the possibility that the altered states of consciousness—they are merely a 2. Reznek’s Definition - something is a mental interpretation of observable physical symptoms can way to elicit such states illness if, and only if, it is an abnormal* and determine their reality; for instance, the physiological g. Understanding the mechanisms of altered states of involuntary process that does mental harm and correlates of anxiety may be interpreted as fear, consciousness can be an avenue to greater should best be treated by medical means excitement, anger, or sexual arousal depending upon understanding of the nervous system; furthermore, prior expectations, cultural values etc *Note - "abnormal" is used in the constructivist or such knowledge may lead to the discovery of 3. Ignores the role played by intervening inferred normative sense, and not in the statistical or untapped human potential and a better understanding cognitive variables idealistic sense, as "normal" is a relative term of ordinary waking consciousness determined by society COGNITIVE BEHAVIORISM 1. Difficult to avoid circular definitions in invoking the meaning of certain mental constructs 2. Difficult to determine what extent to allow U.S. $4.95 Can. $7.50 TREATMENT AND decreasingly operationalizable mental entities THERAPY 3. The role of psychosomatic variables may be NOTE TO STUDENT: This QUICKSTUDY® guide is an outline of the major topics overlooked or minimized taught in introductory Psychology courses. Due to its condensed format, use it as a MEDICAL TREATMENTS Psychology guide, but not as a replacement for assigned class work. 1. Antipsychotic drugs (major tranquilizers) - 4. Some argue that the underlying cause of observable All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, symptoms is ignored by behavioral therapies electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without schizophrenia written permission from the publisher. © 2001 BarCharts, Inc. 1106 Note - Clinically, both behaviorism and cognitive 2. Antidepressant drugs (stimulants) - mood behaviorism only seem effective in the treatment of disorders ISBN-13: 978-142320215-8 very specific disorders; e.g., phobias, specific ISBN-10: 142320215-5 3. Surgery - to destroy brain areas believed undesirable behaviors; cannot effectively be applied responsible for emotional disorders to amorphous problems such as undifferentiated 4. Electroconvulsive therapy - induces seizures used existential depression to treat major depression PSYCHOANALYSIS PSYCHOTHERAPY 1. Freud’s initial theory based only on case studies 1. Psychodynamic (insight) therapies - explore the and anecdotal evidence, and a patient population hundreds of titles at unconscious dynamics of personality which was very limited, atypical, and selective quickstudy.com a. Freud - 2. Postulates entities that are by definition i. Understanding past produces insight unobservable and cannot be operationalized for ii. Free association and transference valid scientific evaluation b. Neo-Freudians - use Freud’s techniques, usually time 3. Psychoanalysis has been demonstrated (by Eysenck) limited to be ineffective in treating emotional disorders 2. Behavioral therapies 4. In reaction to criticism and undermining evidence a. Systematic desensitization - exposure to a hierarchy against their theory, Neo-Freudians have modified of stimuli while relaxing to decrease fears b. Aversive conditioning - punishment for unwanted their theory with post-hoc hypotheses to the point that behavior it is no longer scientifically testable even in principle Customer Hotline # 1.800.230.9522 4